Increasing global pressure on water resources requires many actions from governments and individuals to achieve sustainable levels of water use. These involve management tasks such as project development and utility operation, but the degree of interdependence among the many participants in water management is so great that additional regulatory and coordination mechanisms are needed to control water development and uses. This book is designed to be the introductory work in the new Governance and Management for Sustainable Water Systems Series. It introduces the subject of governance of water systems and illuminates relatively unexplored topics of water resources management.The material is practical but advanced in the sense that theories of industry organization, governance, and institutional analysis are applied in new ways. New case study applications are provided in the book and help the reader to understand how their disciplines apply to water management. The case studies are drawn from each sector and region in the world, including cases from the U.S.A., Europe, the Middle East, South America and a global case to cover water system privatization. Visit the IWA WaterWiki to read and share material related to this title: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/Governance Author: Professor Neil S Grigg, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University, USA

Resources end up in wastewater through inefficient consumption. As a result, wastewater contains reusable water, carbon (energy) and nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur) that could be recovered or reused. Meanwhile, current treatment objectives are to produce an acceptable quality of water for reuse or discharge at the lowest life cycle cost. Most of the current treatment processes manage carbon and nutrients as wastes to be removed, and do not attempt to capitalize on these resources inherent in wastewater. In the context of sustainability and climate change, the next generation of wastewater treatment processes should focus on resource recovery (water reuse, energy/carbon recovery and nutrient recovery) as much as they currently do on treatment. The future goal is for wastewater treatment of domestic wastewater to have a minimal carbon footprint, and to be 100% self-sustainable with regards to energy, carbon, and nutrients, while achieving a discharge or reuse quality that preserves the quality of the receiving waters. In May 2009, the Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF) convened a work group of international experts in the wastewater sector to develop a Wastewater Treatment Technology Roadmap which will identify possible routes to sustainable wastewater treatment in a carbon-constrained world. The resultant Technology Roadmap report identifies pathways toward sustainable wastewater systems over the next few decades, including various approaches the sector could utilize over the 20-30 year planning horizon. The Technology Roadmap describes the current status of wastewater technologies, projects future treatment quality requirements, identifies research needs, and summarizes ongoing activities to meet the perceived future objectives such as reducing the carbon footprint while achieving lower nutrient levels. Work group participants brainstormed possible technology concepts which can be reasonably expected to produce actionable results that can be implemented by interested wastewater utilities. The participants considered typical and atypical approaches to optimizing carbon and nutrient management at WWTPs. Typical approaches include the evaluation of process modeling opportunities and constraints, and incremental resource and carbon management optimization techniques. Atypical approaches will be even more important to the future of wastewater resource reclamation. As an additional outcome, several work group members suggested conceptual and sustainable "plant of the future" treatment systems not constrained by existing infrastructure. Participants discussed their "Plant of the Future" concepts which can be expected to generate opportunities and research needs related to energy sources within treatment plants, changing wastewater characteristics, decentralized treatment, increased nutrient recovery and management, and total water reuse.

During the last decade membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology has grown up to be state of the art in municipal wastewater treatment. Since 1999 the Erftverband has designed, tendered and commissioned three MBR for municipal wastewater treatment in Germany, with capacities from 3,000 to 45,000 m(3)/d. The Erftverband was one of the pioneers in the full scale application of the technology regularly hosted training and information workshops for plant designers and operators from all over the world. Operating Large Scale Membrane Bioreactors for Municipal Wastewater Treatment provides hands-on information on many aspects of MBR technology based on more than ten years of practical experience in the operation of MBR plants with hollow-fiber microfiltration units. It gives details on process configuration, investment and operation costs based on case studies and also in comparison to data from conventional activated sludge (CAS) treatment processes. The book contains the most recent research findings as Erftverband has been collaborating on many of the major European research projects dedicated to MBR technology. Actual process data from all treatment steps of the plants (mechanical pre-treatment, bioreactors, filtration, membrane cleaning) gives an insight into the long-term performance of the MBR plants and into the possible do's and dont's of full scale applications and the potential for further process optimisation. It is a good source of practical advice on tendering and construction, plant management and operation. Operating Large Scale Membrane Bioreactors for Municipal Wastewater Treatment is essential reading for practitioners and researchers, providing information on many aspects of MBR technology, including actual process data, graphs and pictures that illustrate the challenges of MBR design and operation. Visit the IWA WaterWiki to read and share material related to this title: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/MBROperation

This book covers the most recent scientific and technological developments (state-of-the-art) in the field of chemical oxidation processes applicable for the efficient treatment of biologically-difficult-to-degrade, toxic and/or recalcitrant effluents originating from different manufacturing processes. It is a comprehensive review of process and pollution profiles as well as conventional, advanced and emerging treatment processes & technologies developed for the most relevant and pollution (wet processing)-intensive industrial sectors. It addresses chemical/photochemical oxidative treatment processes, case-specific treatability problems of major industrial sectors, emerging (novel) as well as pilot/full-scale applications, process integration, treatment system design & sizing criteria (figure-of-merits), cost evaluation and success stories in the application of chemical oxidative treatment processes. Chemical Oxidation Applications for Industrial Wastewaters is an essential reference for lecturers, researchers, industrial and environmental engineers and practitioners working in the field of environmental science and engineering. Visit the IWA WaterWiki to read and share material related to this title: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/CHEMICALOXIDATIONAPPLICATIONSFORINDUSTRIALWASTEWATERS Authors: Professor Olcay Tunay, Professor Isik Kabdasli, Associate Professor Idil Arslan-Alaton and Assistant Professor Tugba OElmez-Hanci, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey.

The complex dimensions of the Mediterranean freshwater resources, their fragility and their scarcity have been highlighted and have received considerable attention as a primary priority issue politically, technically and scientifically. Membrane technology, with its different applications in water treatment (desalination, potable water treatment, wastewater treatment and reuse) has showed to be a powerful tool to abate the water crisis in the Mediterranean region. The primary objective of Membrane Technology in Water Treatment in the Mediterranean Region is to support the current research and development activities in membrane technology focused on water treatment in the Mediterranean area, providing an international stage to local research organisations and universities devoted to the development of membrane technologies in the following areas: municipal and industrial wastewater treatment, surface water purification and brackish and sea water treatment for drinking purpose. It covers the identification, mapping and evaluation of the on-going research, in order to propose future research and co-operation strategies. Visit the IWA WaterWiki to read and share material related to this title: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/MembraneTechnologyinWaterTreatmentintheMediterraneanRegion

Equipment used for the analysis of water is frequently insufficiently sensitive to be able to detect the low concentrations of organic and inorganic substances present in samples. Applying preconcentration to the sample prior to analysis means the results gained are more accurate and can be used to report trends more effectively. Each chapter of Preconcentration Techniques for Natural and Treated Waters discusses a different method of preconcentration and its application to the preconcentration of cations, anions, organic substances and organometallic compounds. Drawing together the recent world literature available on the subject, this book provides detailed discussion of the need for reducing detection limits in analytical chemistry and ways of achieving this aim. Throughout the book emphasis is laid on providing practical experimental detail, facilitating further development of procedures. Numerous tables present information clearly and accessibly. This book will be an invaluable reference for biologists, chemists, agriculturists, toxicologists, oceanographers, and environmentalists dealing with the analysis of water in industry and academia.

This project convened a team of experts in the fields of environmental engineering (AECOM), analytical chemistry and hydrogeology (USGS), and biological assay analysis (UA) to evaluate the occurrence and fate of estrogenic compound, and the estrogenicity of biosolids derived from wastewater treatment. Sludge and biosolids samples were collected through the solids treatment train of four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) operating a range of solids processing, treatment and disposal options that are typical to facilities across the United States. Targeted solids processing methods included thickening via gravity, gravity belt, and dissolved air flotation; stabilization via lime addition, aerobic digestion and anaerobic digestion; chemical conditioning; dewatering via centrifuge; and other processes including composting and pelletization. Targeted disposal options included beneficial reuse or disposal including land application, dedicated land disposal and landfilling. Samples were collected from the study plants between two and five times over two years, allowing for an assessment of seasonal variation. In some cases, sampling density was not sufficient to assess seasonal variations, but for certain compounds interesting seasonal trends were observed. The solids samples were supplemented by liquid samples at key locations in the study plants during several sample collection events. Over the course of the study 15 sample trips were conducted and a total of 90 samples were collected from the four study plants. For each sample collected, chemical analysis for steroid hormones and in vitro biological assay (bioassay) measurements were conducted to quantify estrogen receptor agonists, antagonists, and estrogenic activity. In addition to the estrogenic compounds, samples were analyzed for a suite of trace organic compounds (TOrCs), including anthropogenic wastewater indicators (AWIs) and pharmaceuticals, resulting in analysis for over 100 chemical compounds in each liquid or solid sample. Collection of these data substantially expanded the scope and value of the study, providing a more comprehensive evaluation of the effects of solids processing and treatment on TOrCs. Loads of TOrCs and estrogenic activity were calculated for each sample point based on flows and solids loadings data from the study plants. In this exercise, TOrC concentrations are multiplied by the solids loading (tons per day) to calculate the daily load of each compound in grams per day (g/day). This report provides comparisons of the chemical and biological assays used in this study, the results of select TOrC mass balances as well as a discussion of the results and areas for future research.

This international, comprehensive guide to modeling and simulation studies in activated sludge systems leads the reader through the entire modeling process - from building a mechanistic model to applying the model in practice. Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation of Activated Sludge Systems will: Enhance the readers' understanding of different model concepts for several (most essential) biochemical processes in the advanced activated sludge systems Provide extensive and up-to-date coverage of experimental methodologies of a complete model parameter estimation (longitudinal dispersion coefficient, influent wastewater fractions, kinetic and stoichiometric coefficients, settling velocity, etc.) Summarize and critically review the ranges of model parameters reported in literature Compare the existing protocols aiming at a systematic organization of the simulation study Outline the capabilities of the existing commercial simulators Present documented, successful case studies of practical model applications as a guide while planning a simulation study. The book is organized to provide a general background and some basic definitions, then theoretical aspects of modeling and finally, the issues important for practical model applications. Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation of Activated Sludge Systems can be used as supplementary material for a graduate level wastewater engineering courses and is useful to a wide audience of researchers and practitioners. Experienced model users such as consultants, trained plant management staff may find the book useful as a reference and as a resource for self-guided study. Visit the IWA WaterWiki to read and share material related to this title: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/MathmematicalModellingandActivatedSludgeSystems

About 4000 medical compounds are being used in the drugs applied today. It is estimated that worldwide consumption of active compounds amounts to some 100 000 tons or more per year. Consequently, there is a need to highlight the most important questions and issues related to presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment. Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: current knowledge and need assessment to reduce presence and impact brings together results of previous and on-going EU projects with published data from both governmental sources and scientific literature and manufacturers' data on production and usage of pharmaceuticals. This book puts together the current knowledge and emphasises questions that deserve attention such as: * What is the spectrum of most relevant pharmaceutical products (PP's) for the aquatic environment? Which indicators for supporting environmental managers, health authorities? * What is the efficiency of urban and industrial sewage treatment plants over a year? What is the fate and behaviour of PP's in sewage treatment plants? If receiving waters are used for potable water supplies, does the presence of these compounds represent a potential hazard to human health? * Could we solve some problems by environmental or cleaner technologies? * What regulatory approaches, incentives, prevention actions can be implemented in order to lower PP's concentration in the environment? Does a European practical guidance can be developed? * Can the impacts of PPs on the environment be reduced through the use of eco-pharmaco-stewardship approaches including the use of clean synthesis, classification and labelling, and better communication of methods of 'good practice'? * How can we better monitor the environmental impact of a pharmaceutical once it has received a marketing authorisation?

Advanced Tools and Models to Improve River Basin Management in Europe in the Context of Climate Change - AquaTerra has developed from an integrated project of the 6th EU RTD Framework Programme that aims to provide the scientific basis for an improved river basin management through a better understanding of the river-sediment-soil-groundwater system as a whole, by integrating both natural and socio-economics aspects at different temporal and spatial scales. This book aims: * to provide better understanding of the river-sediment-soil-groundwater system at various temporal and spatial scales * to relate expected climate alterations to changes in deposition, mobility and distribution of pollutants in European river basins. * to provide the scientific basis for improved river basin management * to introduce novel tools for water and soil quality monitoring * to show the necessity of integrated modelling frameworks for impact evaluation of pollution as well as climate and land-use changes for definition of long-term management schemes The work illustrates the dynamic behavior of the pathway of pollutants in soils, groundwater, surface water and sediments. It highlights the fundamental importance of integrating knowledge from sereral combineddisciplines on various environmental compartments in order to understand the large number of processes that govern pollutant input, transport and turnover. Results shows that a significant step forward has been made in the development new analytical methods and of process-based numerical models that are capable of making predictions of likely trends and environmental changes to be expected in the near or distant future at the basin-scale. These models can be used e.g. to generate hydrologic scenarios based on climate models and to simulate pollutant distribution and turnover rates from decades to millennia.

Special Offer: KWR Drinking Water Treatment Set - Buy all five books together and save a total GBP119! Discolouration in Drinking Water Systems analyses the particle-related processes involved in the generation of discolouration problems in the network. To this end, new measuring methods have been developed such as continuous monitoring of turbidity and particle count, the Resuspension Potential Method (RPM), and the Time Integrated Large Volume Sampler (TILVS). With these new methods the discolouration problem can be seen as related to loose deposits in the network. The incidental re-suspension of accumulated loose particles is the main cause of discolouration events in the network. The origin of the particles is mainly the treated drinking water, followed by processes in the network like post-flocculation, corrosion and leaching and biological growth and re-growth. Irrespective of the cause of the particles the accumulation to layers of loose deposits can initiate water quality problems. This book looks at how managing the accumulation is possible through controlling the velocity in the pipes and through removing the loose deposits through effective cleaning.

This volume provides readers with an opportunity to learn from front line water managers of watershed-based agencies across Canada about integrated water management (or integrated water resource management). In common with practice in much of the world, the responsibility for implementing integrated watershed management in Canada is fragmented. Each province and territory in Canada has developed unique approaches or governance models to guide decision making in that regard. Thus, this edited volume enables readers from around the world to gain insight on the best practices in Canada for achieving success and addressing barriers to implement IWM. Although there remains non consensus about how to "best" approach river basin management, some of the main observations include: There is a need to balance a focus on "the big picture", with scoping the scale and scope of planning activities in order that feasible and effective solutions can be implemented Three types of integration are popular among the agencies included in the book: (i) among environment, economy and society, (ii) interactions between people and the environment and (iii) integration (or coordination) of administrative activities. Much more attention is required to achieving effective engagement from Indigenous communities The chapters were originally published in a special issue of the International Journal of Water Resources Development.

Many EU cities are experiencing increasing problems with their water pipeline infrastructure. The cost of replacing these old, worn-out systems, if left to deteriorate beyond repair, is astronomical and clearly beyond the resources of many communities. Replacement, however, is not the only choice as many of these systems can be rehabilitated at 30 to 70 percent of the cost of replacement. Accordingly, resources are now increasingly being allocated to address pipeline rehabilitation management issues. Due to the emphasis on sustainable management, risk-based approaches for the rehabilitation management of the water supply network need to be developed. Rehabilitation decisions should be based, interalia, on inspection and evaluation of the pipeline conditions. Yet, utilities cannot locate a number of their old pipes and current inspection technologies typically do not provide the needed detailed information on pipeline damage. The objectives of this book are to describe the research work carried out in the framework of WATERPIPE project aiming: * To develop a novel, high-resolution imaging ground penetrating radar for the detection of pipes, leaks and damages and the imaging of the damaged region and evaluate it at a test site. * To produce an integrated system that will contain the equipment in "1" and a Decision-Support-System (DSS) for the rehabilitation management of the underground water pipelines that will use input from the inspections to assess, probabilistically, the time-dependent leakage and structural reliability of the pipelines and a risk-based methodology for rehabilitation decisions that considers the overall risk, including financial, social and environmental criteria. * To field test the equipment and the Decision-Support-System

The ultimate in recycling, composting has been in use in some form since ancient times. A well-managed composting facility should exist as a good neighbor contributing to ecology. However, since local populations often perceive risks if a composting facility is built nearby, composting facilities must be designed and operated with minimal odor, dust, and noise emissions. Industrial Composting examines the key operational aspects and problems associated with composting, with strong emphasis on odor mitigation, pathogens, and aerosols. Designed for composting professionals and supported by extensive quality references, this book covers: Facilities Planning and Design Odor Management Design, Material, Energy, and Water Balances Economics of Product Marketing and Sales Public Relations, Participation, and Communication Regulations Pathogen Concentrations as Related to Feedstocks Bioaerosols Associated with Composting and Their Potential Diseases While many books cover composting, most of those currently available are either out of date or contain only a few chapters on the subject. With interest growing in the use of composting for biosolids, food wastes, and other specialty areas, the need for an up-to-date, focused resource is also increasing. To assist composting practitioners, community decision makers, and advocates, Industrial Composting brings recent advances and best practices in composting together in an accessible, professional volume.

Introduction to Chemical Exposure and Risk Assessment focuses on the principles involved in assessing the risks from chemical exposure. These principles include the perception of risk, an understanding of how numbers are handled, and how chemicals affect health. The book briefly describes the major sinks, such as water and air, where chemicals are introduced. This is followed by a discussion on how concentrations are estimated and risk assessments are made. A discussion of risk benefit analysis and a presentation of several case studies using the principles for assessing risks are also included.

This book, published in collaboration with ERSAR, presents a unique account of governance and regulatory methods used by different countries, states and municipalities that will help regulators and governments all over the world to improve their regulatory approaches. It is the first book to compile such an amount of data about regulatory processes of a wide number of countries from the five continents. It discusses how the characteristics of water and wastewater services call for regulation and how different countries apply distinct regulatory methods. By showing 18 country case-studies, the book offers an interesting perspective as the regulatory models adopted vary immensely depending on geographical location, nature and strength of institutions and governments, political ideology, features and level of development of the countries. In addition, it provides examples of best practices that may be important for policy-makers to enhance the regulatory processes adopted in each country. It looks closely at rules imposed by state and local governments concerning regulatory issues and how they are being applied. Regulation of Water and Wastewater Services covers the fundamental and practical concepts and issues regarding the regulation of water and wastewater services. It describes and compares the regulatory methods adopted in several countries and provides a global overview on regulation. There is detailed coverage of topics such as quality of service regulation, economic regulation and public service obligations. This book is suitable for regulators, academic researchers and students, consultants, operators and managers, policy-makers and other stakeholders. Visit the IWA WaterWiki to read and share material related to this title: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/RegulationofWaterandWastewaterServicesAninternationalcomparison Author: Rui Cunha Marques, Center of Urban and Regional Systems (CESUR), Instituto Superior Tecnico, Technical University of Lisbon in collaboration with the Portuguese Water and Waste Services Regulation Authority (ERSAR)

International Trade in Water Rights provides a new approach to the questions raised by international water transfer projects: To whom does water belong? More precisely, what rules should govern international water transfers from transboundary watercourses? These issues are usually studied through the lenses of international trade law. International Trade in Water Rights offers a new approach by highlighting the fundamental issue of domestic and international water property regime and introducing the difference between trade in water and trade in water rights. International Trade in Water Rights analyses the conditions under which market-based instruments could participate in the resolution of water disputes over international watercourses and recommendations are made based on the study of two cases of inter-state water trading in the Colorado River Basin and in the Murray Darling Basin. It is argued that the recognition of water as an economic good in domestic water reform will increasingly impact the management of international watercourses. The book is of key interest to water professionals, economists, lawyers, and political scientists dealing with transboundary disputes over water.

First Published in 2011. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

The analysis in this classic study ranges from basic economic and political theory to engineering and institutional practices, and encompasses case studies in England, France, and West Germany, as well as in the Ohio, Potomac, and Delaware river basins in the United States. Originally published in 1968

Sustainable Water Resources in the Built Environment covers elements of water engineering and policy making in the sustainable construction of buildings with a focus on case studies from Panama and Kenya. It provides comprehensive information based on case studies, experimental data, interviews, and in-depth research. The book focuses on the water aspects of sustainable construction in less economically developed environments. It covers the importance of sustainable construction in developing country contexts with particular reference to what is meant by the water and wastewater aspects of sustainable buildings, the layout, climate, and culture of sites, the water quality tests performed and results obtained, the design of rainwater harvesting systems and policy considerations. The book is a useful resource for practitioners in the field working on the water aspects of sustainable construction (international aid agencies, engineering firms working in developing contexts, intergovernmental organizations and NGOs). It is also useful as a text for water and sanitation practices in developing countries. Visit the IWA WaterWiki to read and share material related to this title: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/SustainabilityinWaterSupply

Special Offer: Water Framework Directive Series Set. To buy all four titles including Volume 3 and save GBP100, visit: http://iwapublishing.com/books/9781780400013/water-framework-directive-series-set Modelling Aspects of Water Framework Directive Implementation: Volume 1 is a concrete outcome from the Harmoni-CA concerted action as part of a 4-volume series of Guidance Reports that guide water professionals through the implementation process of the Water Framework Directive, with a focus on the use of ICT-tools (and in particular modelling). They are complementary to the Guidance Documents produced by the EU Directorate General for Environment. Water resources planning and management and the development of appropriate policies require methodologies and tools that are able to support systematic, integrative and multidisciplinary assessments at various scales. It also requires the quantification of various uncertainties in both data and models, and the incorporation of stakeholders participation and institutional mechanisms into the various tools and risk assessment methodologies, to help decision makers understand and evaluate alternative measures and decisions. The other three volumes in the Water Framework Directive Series are: Water Framework Directive: Model supported Implementation - A Water Manager's Guide edited by Fred Hattermann and Zbigniew W Kundzewicz Integrated Assessment for WFD implementation: Data, economic and human dimension - Volume 2, edited by Peter A. Vanrolleghem Decision support for WFD implementation - Volume 3, edited by Peter A. Vanrolleghem. Visit the IWA WaterWiki to read and share material related to this title: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/IntegratedAssessmentforWaterFrameworkDirectiveImplementation

The Gulf Coast hurricanes of 2005 and horrific events of 9/11/2001 have spawned a new emphasis on domestic security and emergency preparedness. Governments at all levels are taking action to reduce their vulnerabilities and prepare for emergencies, including unconventional disasters such as regional-scale weather events and terrorist attacks. A great deal has been written concerning security practices for large and medium-sized water and wastewater systems. Some of these practices are relevant and applicable to small, rural, and tribal wastewater systems, but many are not. Small systems tend to have characteristics which preclude them from adopting many of the practices employed by larger wastewater and water utilities. This report identifies security-related practices that are applicable for small wastewater systems. The report adopts a two-pronged approach with respect to security enhancement for small wastewater systems. First, the report focuses on security practices that are consistent with the technical, managerial, and financial capacity of small systems, and identifies a series of security-related "Practice Areas" that can be implemented in the near-term with modest expenditure of financial and/or staff resources. Second, the report outlines a strategy to help small utilities map-out programs for ongoing, sustainable security enhancement. This ongoing strategy is based primarily on the identification of practices and investments that a utility can pursue in cooperation with other municipal and regional entities.

First published in 1978: The purpose of this two-volume series is to present a consolidated and comprehensive reference on oxygen-activated sludge technology.

Sewer systems constitute a very significant heritage in European cities. Their structural quality and functional efficiency are key parameters to guarantee the transfer of domestic and industrial wastewater to treatment plants without infiltration nor exfiltration. Infiltration of groundwater is particularly detrimental to treatment plant efficiency, while exfiltration of wastewater can lead to groundwater contamination. The European research project APUSS (Assessing infiltration and exfiltration on the Performance of Urban Sewer Systems) was devoted to sewer infiltration and exfiltration questions. It was structured in three main Work Areas dealing respectively with i) the development of new measurement methods based on tracer experiments and accounting for detailed uncertainty analyses, ii) the implementation of models and software tools to integrate structural and experimental data and to facilitate data display, operational management and decision-making processes and iii) the integration of economic and operational questions by means of cost estimation, economic evaluation, performance indicators and multi-criteria methods applied to investment/rehabilitation strategies. This final report describes the objectives, methods and main results for each Work Area. References to detailed methods, protocols, reports and tools are given in this final report which will be an invaluable source of information for all those concerned with the performance of urban sewer systems.

Evaluating the effectiveness of conventional wet processes for cleaning silicon wafers in semiconductor production, this reference reveals concrete measures to improve ultrapure water quality reviewing the structure and physical characteristics of ultrapure water molecules.