Modern industry imposes ever increasing requirements upon tools and tool materials as to the provision for performance under the conditions of high cutting speeds and dynamic loads as well as under intensive thermal and chemical interactions with workpiece materials. The industry demands a higher productivity in combination with the accuracy of geometry and dimensions of workpieces and quality of working surfaces of the machined pieces. These requirements are best met by the tool superhard materials (diamond and diamond-like cubic boron nitride). Ceramics based on silicon carbide, aluminum and boron oxides as well as on titanium, silicon and aluminum nitrides offer promise as tool materials. Tungsten-containing cemented carbides are still considered as suitable tool materials. Hi- hardness and high strength composites based on the above materials fit all the requirements imposed by machining jobs when manufacturing elements of machinery, in particular those operating under the extreme conditions of high temperatures and loads. These elements are produced of difficult-- machine high-alloy steels, nickel refractory alloys, high-tech ceramics, materials with metallic and non-metallic coatings having improved wear resistance, as well as of special polymeric and glass-ceramic materials. Materials science at high pressure deals with the use of high-pressure techniques for the development and production of unique materials whose preparation at ambient pressure is impossible (e. g. , diamond, cubic boron nitride, etc. ) or of materials with properties exceeding those of materials produced at ambient pressure (e. g. , high-temperature superconductors).

The physics of soft matter - materials such as elastomers, gels, foams and liquid crystals - is an area of intense interest and contemporary study. Moreover, soft matter plays a role in a wide variety of important processes and application. For example, gel swelling and dynamics are an essential part of many biological and individual processes, such as motility mechanisms in bacteria and the transport and absorption of drugs. Ferroelectrics, liquid crystals, and elastomers are being used to design ever faster switching devices. Experimental studies, such as scattering, optical and electron microscopy, have provided a great deal of detailed information on structures. But the integration of mathematical modeling and analysis with experimental approaches promises to greatly increase our understanding of structure-property relationships and constitutive equations. The workshop on Modeling of Soft Matter has taken such an integrated approach. It brought together researchers in applied and computational mathematical fields such as differential equations, dynamical systems, analysis, and fluid and solid mechanics, and scientists and engineers from a variety of disciplines relevant to soft matter physics. An important outcome of the workshop has been to identify beautiful and novel scientific problems arising in soft matter that are in need of mathematical modeling and appear amenable to it and so to set the stage for further research. This volume presents a collection of papers representing the key aspects of the topics discussed at depth in the course of the workshop.

We arepleasedtopresentthesixthvolumeofProgressinUltrafastIntenseLaserS- ence. As the frontiers of ultrafast intense laser science rapidly expand ever outward, there continues to be a growing demand for an introduction to this interdisciplinary research?eldthatisatoncewidelyaccessibleandcapableofdeliveringcutting-edge developments. Our series aims to respond to this call by providing a compilation of concise review-style articles written by researchers at the forefront of this research ?eld, so that researcherswith differentbackgroundsas well as graduatestudentscan easily grasp the essential aspects. As in previousvolumesof PUILS, each chapterof this bookbeginswith an int- ductory part, in which a clear and concise overview of the topic and its signi?cance is given, and moves onto a description of the authors' most recent research results. All the chapters are peer-reviewed. The articles of this sixth volume cover a diverse rangeoftheinterdisciplinaryresearch?eld,andthetopicsmaybegroupedintothree categories: responses of molecules to ultrashort intense laser pulses (Chaps. 1 - 4), generation and characterization of attosecond pulses and high-order harmonics (Chaps. 5 - 8), and?lamentationand laser-plasma interactionand their applications (Chaps. 9 - 11).

This book introduces the concepts and methodologies related to the modelling of the complex phenomena occurring in materials processing. After a short reminder of conservation laws and constitutive relationships, the authors introduce the main numerical methods: finite differences, finite volumes and finite elements. These techniques are developed in three main chapters of the book that tackle more specific problems: phase transformation, solid mechanics and fluid flow. The two last chapters treat inverse methods to obtain the boundary conditions or the material properties and stochastic methods for microstructural simulation. This book is intended for undergraduate and graduate students in materials science and engineering, mechanical engineering and physics and for engineering professionals or researchers who want to get acquainted with numerical simulation to model and compute materials processing.

This book presents a comprehensive overview of microrheology, emphasizing the underlying theory, practical aspects of its implementation, and current applications to rheological studies in academic and industrial laboratories. The field of microrheology continues to evolve rapidly, and applications are expanding at an accelerating pace. Readers will learn about the key methods and techniques, including important considerations to be made with respect to the materials most amenable to microrheological characterization and pitfalls to avoid in measurements and analysis. Microrheological measurements can be as straightforward as video microscopy recordings of colloidal particle Brownian motion; these simple experiments can yield rich rheological information. Microrheology covers topics ranging from active microrheology using laser or magnetic tweezers to passive microrheology, such as multiple particle tracking and tracer particle microrheology with diffusing wave spectroscopy. Overall, this introduction to microrheology informs those seeking to incorporate these methods into their own research, or simply survey and understand the growing body of microrheology literature. Many sources of archival literature are consolidated into an accessible volume for rheologist and non-specialist alike. The small sample sizes of many microrheology experiments have made it an important method for studying emerging and scarce biological materials, making this characterization method suitable for application in a variety of fields.

An assessment of the recent achievements and relative strengths of two developing techniques for characterising surfaces at the nanometer scale: (i) local probe methods, including scanning tunnelling microscopy and its derivatives; and (ii) nanoscale photoemission and absorption spectroscopy for chemical analysis. The keynote lectures were delivered by some of the world's best scientists in the field and some of the topics covered include: (1) The possible application of STM in atomically resolved chemical analysis. (2) The principles of scanning force/friction and scanning near-field optical microscopes. (3) The scanning photoemission electron microscopes built at ELETTRA and SRRC, with a description of synchrotron radiation microscopy. (4) Recent progress in the development of spatially-resolved photoelectron microscopy, especially the use of zone plate photon optics. (5) The present status of non-scanning photoemission microscopy with slow electrons. (6) the BESSY 2 project for a non-scanning photoelectron microscope with electron optics. (7) Spatially-resolved in situ reaction studies of chemical waves and oscillatory phenomena with the UV photoemission microscope.

One of the main goals of investigations of shock-wave phenomena in condensed matter is to develop methods for predicting effects of explosions, high-velocity collisions, and other kinds of intense dynamic loading of materials and structures. Based on the results of international research conducted over the past 30 years, this book is addressed not only to experts in shock-wave physics, but also to interested representatives from adjacent fields of activity and to students who seek an introduction to the current issues.

This book illustrates original pathways to manipulate light at the nanoscale by means of surface electromagnetic waves (here, Bloch surface waves, BSWs) on planar dielectric multilayers, also known as one-dimensional photonic crystals. This approach is particularly valuable as it represents an effective alternative to the widely exploited surface plasmon paradigm. After a brief overview on the fundamentals of BSWs, several significant applications of BSW-sustaining structures are described. Particular consideration is given to the propagation, guiding, and diffraction of BSW-coupled radiation. Further, the interaction of organic emitters with BSWs on planar and corrugated multilayers is investigated, including fluorescence beaming in free space. To provide greater insight into sensing applications, an illustrative example of fluorescent microarray-based detection is presented. The book is intended for scientists and researchers working on photon management opportunities in fields such as biosensing, optical circuitry, and lighting.

Magnetism encompasses a wide range of systems and physical phenomena, and its study has posed and exposed both important fundamental problems and many practical applications. Recently, several entirely new phenomena have thus been discovered, generated through cooperative behaviour which could not have been predicted from a knowledge of one-spin' states. At the same time, advances in sample preparation, experimental technique, apparatus and radiation sources, have led to increasing precision in the investigation and exposure of greater subtleties in magnetic thin films, multilayers and other systems. Examples of unexpected and conceptually new phenomena occur in strongly correlated and fluctuating quantum systems, producing effects such as Haldane and spin-Peierls gaps, solitons, quantum spin glasses and spin liquids. The discovery and elucidation of these emerging properties' is a central theme in modern condensed matter physics. The present book comprises a series of chapters by world experts, covering both theoretical and experimental aspects. The approach is pedagogical and tutorial, but fully up to date, covering the latest research. The level is appropriate to graduate researchers who may either be just moving into the field or who are already active in condensed matter physics.

Photonic band gap crystals offer unique ways to tailor light and the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In analogy to electrons in a crystal, EM waves propagating in a structure with a periodically-modulated dielectric constant are organized into photonic bands separated by gaps in which propagating states are forbidden. Proposed applications of such photonic band gap crystals, operating at frequencies from microwave to optical, include zero- threshold lasers, low-loss resonators and cavities, and efficient microwave antennas. Spontaneous emission is suppressed for photons in the photonic band gap, offering novel approaches to manipulating the EM field and creating high-efficiency light-emitting structures. Photonic Band Gap Materials identifies three most promising areas of research. The first is materials fabrication, involving the creation of high quality, low loss, periodic dielectric structures. The smallest photonic crystals yet fabricated have been made by machining Si wafers along (110), and some have lattice constants as small as 500 microns. The second area is in applications. Possible applications presented are microwave mirrors, directional antennas, resonators (especially in the 2 GHz region), filters, waveguides, Y splitters, and resonant microcavities. The third area covers fundamentally new physical phenomena in condensed matter physics and quantum optics. An excellent review of recent development, covering theoretical, experimental and applied aspects. Interesting and stimulating reading for active researchers, as well as a useful reference for non-specialists.

This volume, the proceedings of a 1998 international workshop, provides experimental evidence of the effects of correlation on the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of materials, as well as the theoretical/computational methodology that has been developed for their study.

This book describes the design, construction, and characterization of a new type of aberration-corrected, neutral-atom lens. Atom beam control plays a crucial role in many different fields, ranging from fundamental physics research and materials science to applied nanotechnology. Despite this, atom-optical elements like lenses and mirrors remain relatively underdeveloped compared to their counterparts in other optics fields. Although aberration correction is addressed quite comprehensively in photon and electron lenses, no credible research efforts have yet produced the same technology for neutral atoms. It reports on progress towards a neutral atom imaging device that will be useful in a range of applications, including nanofabrication and surface microscopy. It presents a novel technique for improving refractive power and correcting chromatic aberration in atom lenses based on a fundamental paradigm shift from continuous, two-dimensional focusing to a pulsed, three-dimensional approach. Simulations of this system suggest that it will pave the way towards the long-sought goal of true atom imaging on the nanoscale. The book further describes the construction of a prototype lens, and shows that all of the technological requirements for the proposed system are easily satisfied. Using metastable neon from a supersonic source, the prototype was characterized for three different focal lengths and a diverse range of apertures. Despite some manufacturing imperfections, lower distortion and higher resolution than has been shown in any previous hexapole lens was observed. Comparison with simulations corroborates the underlying theory and encourages further refinement of the process.

This volume contains most of the contributions presented at the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Rare Earth Transition Metal Borocarbides (Nitrides): Superconducting, Magnetic and Normal State Properties, held in Dresden, Germany at 13 - 18 June 2000. The Workshop was chaired by K. -H. MUller and V. N. Narozhnyi. This was the first meeting specially focused on the quaternary rare-earth transition-metal borocarbides and nitrides - a new class of magnetic superconductors discovered in 1994. The motivation for organizing this workshop was to bring together scientists (both experimentalists and theoreticians), actively working in this field in different countries, using different methods, to exchange their points of view on the properties ofthese materials and to recognize the directions for future research. Totally 48 participants from 17 countries ofEurope, the United States, BraZil, India, Israel and Japan took part in this meeting. In addition about 15 observers (mainly from Germany) attended. The scientific Programme of the Workshop was composed of 7 sections. The section Introduction and Overview was followed by the Electronic Structure and Properties and Phonon Spectra; Magnetic Properties and CEF Effects; Interplay between Superconductivity and Magnetism; Vortex Lattice; Thin Films; Nature of the Superconducting State in Borocarbides sections. Totally 50 presentations were given (45 ofthem in oral form). Considerable attention was devoted to the characterization of the particular place of borocarbides amongst the other magnetic and superconducting systems and, especially, magnetic superconductors.

Defects in semiconductors have been studied for many years, in many cases with a view toward controlling their behaviour through various forms of "defect engineering." For example, in the bulk, charging significantly affects the total concentration of defects that are available to mediate phenomena such as solid-state diffusion. Surface defects play an important role in mediating surface mass transport during high temperature processing steps such as epitaxial film deposition, diffusional smoothing in reflow, and nanostructure formation in memory device fabrication. "Charged Defects in Semiconductors" details the current state of knowledge regarding the properties of the ionized defects that can affect the behaviour of advanced transistors, photo-active devices, catalysts, and sensors. Features: group IV, III-V, and oxide semiconductors; intrinsic and extrinsic defects; and, point defects, as well as defect pairs, complexes and clusters.

The occurrence of fractional statistics has been discovered in more and more quantum field theory models, including some of the most geometrical and canonical ones. In a remarkable case, the fractional quantum statistics of quasiparticles in the fractional quantized Hall effect (FQHE) contributes to the understanding of states found there. Very recent work has indicated that similar possibilities arise for two-dimensional films in certain states of liquid 3He. Perhaps most exciting, although quite speculative at this moment, are recent attempts to apply fractional statistics to spin systems, and specifically to the behaviour of the 2-dimensional copper oxide layers that seem to be critical to the phenomenon of high-temperature superconductivity. It has recently been shown that fractional statistics automatically implies superconductivity of a qualitatively new kind. This collection of reprints with comprehensive commentary will serve as a valuable reference for those interested in the subject but have found it difficult to acquire basic knowledge, or a coherent view of the whole, due to the scattered literature available at present.

This book presents an overview of the basic concepts, methods and applications of nonlinear low-dimensional solid state physics based on the Frenkel-Kontorova model and its generalizations. It allows a nonspecialist to acquire foundations in the interdisciplinary concepts and methods of both solid state physics and nonlinear science. It covers many important topics such as the nonlinear dynamics of discrete systems, the dynamics of solitons and their interaction, commensurate and incommensurate systems, statistical mechanics of nonlinear systems, and nonequilibrium dynamics of interacting many-body systems. Also treated are the principal equations on nonlinear solid-state physics, along with the properties and methods for their study.

Precision Nanometrology describes the new field of precision nanometrology, which plays an important part in nanoscale manufacturing of semiconductors, optical elements, precision parts and similar items. It pays particular attention to the measurement of surface forms of precision workpieces and to stage motions of precision machines. The first half of the book is dedicated to the description of optical sensors for the measurement of angle and displacement, which are fundamental quantities for precision nanometrology. The second half presents a number of scanning-type measuring systems for surface forms and stage motions. The systems discussed include: * error separation algorithms and systems for measurement of straightness and roundness, * the measurement of micro-aspherics, * systems based on scanning probe microscopy, and * scanning image-sensor systems. Precision Nanometrology presents the fundamental and practical technologies of precision nanometrology with a helpful selection of algorithms, instruments and experimental data. It will be beneficial for researchers, engineers and postgraduate students involved in precision engineering, nanotechnology and manufacturing.

The 2008 Spring Meeting of the Arbeitskreis Festkorperphysik was held in Berlin, Germany, between February 24 and February 29, 2008 in conjunction with the 72nd Annual Meeting of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. The 2008 meeting was the largest physics meeting in Europe and among the largest physics meetings in the world in 2008."

A comprehensive collection of papers on theoretical aspects of electronic processes in simple and synthetic metals, superconductors, bulk and low-dimensional semiconductors under extreme conditions, such as high magnetic and electric fields, low and ultra-low temperatures. The main emphasis is on low-dimensional conductors and superconductors, where correlated electrons, interacting with magnetic or nonmagnetic impurities, phonons, photons, or nuclear spins, result in a variety of new physical phenomena, such as quantum oscillations in the superconducting state, Condon instability, Skyrmions and composite fermions in quantum Hall effect systems, and hyperfine field-induced mesoscopic and nanoscopic phenomena. Several new experimental achievements are reported that promise to delineate future trends in low temperature and high magnetic field physics, including the experimental observation of the interplay between superconductivity and nuclear spin ordering at ultra-low temperatures, new observations of Condon domains in normal metals, and an experimental proposal for the realisation of isotopically engineered, semiconductor-based spin-qubit elements for future quantum computation and communication technology.

Since its launch in 1991, the Yohkoh satellite has been returning unprecedented observations of solar flares and the dynamic solar corona. This book is a collection of papers presented at a meeting held in: Yoyogi, Tokyo, on the occasion of Yohkoh's fifth anniversary of operation. The papers constitute a summary of observations and results over the five years, including contributions based on data from Yohkoh's hard and soft X-ray telescopes and its spectrometer experiments. The five years of data, covering approximately one-half of a solar cycle, reveal a fresh perspective on solar science, with a new picture of solar flares and the active Sun emerging. Also, for the first time there are extensive results from Yohkoh observations of the Sun during the solar minimum period. This wide-ranging volume will be of interest to workers in solar physics and X-ray astronomy. It also contains material appropriate for supplemental reading for graduate students in solar physics.

Objects that differ from their mirror images, such as the left and right hands, play an important role in physics at all lengths scales, from elementary particles to macroscopic systems. The handedness, or chirality, of molecules in liquid crystals has a remarkable influence on the macroscopic physical properties of these systems, including the appearance of new phases. Indeed, the majority of optical applications of liquid crystals is due to chiral structures, namely the thermochromic effect of cholesteric liquid crystals, the optical activity in twisted nematic liquid crystal displays, and the ferroelectric and antiferroelectric switching of smectic liquid crystals.This book describes the main aspects of chirality in liquid crystals, and points out some of the open questions of current research. The chapters, each by an expert in the field, review the highlights of the important topics and representative questions in the field of chiral liquid crystals.

Success in the fabrication of structures at the nanometer length scale has opened up a new horizon to condensed matter physics: the study of quantum phenomena in confined boxes, wires, rings, etc. A new class of electronic devices based on this physics has been proposed, with the promise of a new functionality for ultrafast and/or ultradense electronic circuits. Such applications demand highly sophisticated fabrication techniques, the crucial one being lithography. Nanolithography contains updated reviews by major experts on the well established techniques -- electron beam lithography (EBL), X-ray lithography (XRL), ion beam lithography (IBL) -- as well as on emergent techniques, such as scanning tunnelling lithography (STL).

High temperature superconductivity (HTSC) hast he potential todramatically impact many commercial markets, including the electric power industry. Since 1987, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has supported aprogram to develop HTSC applications fort he power industry. The purpose ofEPRI is to manage technical research and development programs to improve power production, distribution, and use. The institute is supported by the voluntary contributions ofs ome7 00 electric utilities and has over 600 utility technical experts as advisors. One objectiveo f EPRI's HTSC program is to ed ucate utility engineers andexecutives on the technical issues related to HTSC materials and the supporting technologies needed for their application. To accomplish this, Argonne National Laboratory was commissioned to preparea series of monthly re ports that would explain th e significanceo f recent advances in HTSC. Acomponent o f each report was a tutorial on some aspect of the HTSC field. Topics ranged from the various ways that thin films are deposited tot he mechanisms used to operatem ajor cryogenic systems. The tutorials became very popularw ithin the utility industry. Surprisingly, the reports also became popular with scientists at universities, corporate labo ratories, and thenational laboratories. A lthough these researchers are quite experienced in one aspect of the technology, they are nots ostron g inothers. Itw ast he diversity and thoroughness ofthe tutorials that made them so valuable.

The workshop entitled Magnetic Susceptibility of Superconductors and other Spin Systems (S4) was held at Coolfont Resort and Health Spa. located near Berkley Springs West Virginia on May 20-23. 1991. There were over sixty attendees. approximately half from the United States. the remainder representing over twelve different countries. The international character of the workshop may be gleaned form the attendee list, included in this volume. The intent of the workshop was to bring together those experimentalists and theoreticians whose efforts have resulted in significant recent contributions to the development and use of the ac susceptibility technique as well as to the interpretation of data obtained from these measurements. Many spirited discussions occurred during and after the presentations. These are reflected in the manuscripts contained in these proceedings. Although camera ready manuscripts were required from all participants at registration, all manuscripts were revised and reflect the lively exchanges that followed each presentation. The small size of the workshop allowed the participants a high degree of flexibility. Consequently when a controversial topic such as "the irreversibility line" emerged, a special session was organized on the spot. At the suggestion of Ron Goldfarb, participants were invited to contribute a one page summary containing their thoughts on the topic. These stand alone contributions were retyped and included as submitted, with only minor editorial changes. These proceedings are intended for those experienced scientists new to the field and graduate students just beginning their research.

This thesis presents an experimental study of ordering phenomena in rare-earth nickelate-based heterostructures by means of inelastic Raman light scattering and elastic resonant x-ray scattering (RXS). Further, it demonstrates that the amplitude ratio of magnetic moments at neighboring nickel sites can be accurately determined by RXS in combination with a correlated double cluster model, and controlled experimentally through structural pinning of the oxygen positions in the crystal lattice. The two key outcomes of the thesis are: (a) demonstrating full control over the charge/bond and spin order parameters in specifically designed praseodymium nickelate heterostructures and observation of a novel spin density wave phase in absence of the charge/bond order parameter, which confirms theoretical predictions of a spin density wave phase driven by spatial confinement of the conduction electrons; and (b) assessing the thickness-induced crossover between collinear and non-collinear spin structures in neodymium nickelate slabs, which is correctly predicted by drawing on density functional theory.