The idea of punishment after death-whereby the souls of the wicked
are consigned to Hell (Gehenna, Gehinnom, or Jahannam)-emerged out
of beliefs found across the Mediterranean, from ancient Egypt to
Zoroastrian Persia, and became fundamental to the Abrahamic
religions. Once Hell achieved doctrinal expression in the New
Testament, the Talmud, and the Qur'an, thinkers began to question
Hell's eternity, and to consider possible alternatives-hell's
rivals. Some imagined outright escape, others periodic but
temporary relief within the torments. One option, including
Purgatory and, in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the Middle State,
was to consider the punishments to be temporary and purifying.
Despite these moral and theological hesitations, the idea of Hell
has remained a historical and theological force until the
present.In Hell and Its Rivals, Alan E. Bernstein examines an array
of sources from within and beyond the three Abrahamic
faiths-including theology, chronicles, legal charters, edifying
tales, and narratives of near-death experiences-to analyze the
origins and evolution of belief in Hell. Key social institutions,
including slavery, capital punishment, and monarchy, also affected
the afterlife beliefs of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Reflection
on hell encouraged a stigmatization of "the other" that in turn
emphasized the differences between these religions. Yet, despite
these rivalries, each community proclaimed eternal punishment and
answered related challenges to it in similar terms. For all that
divided them, they agreed on the need for-and fact of-Hell.
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