Conventional wisdom has it that the sciences, properly pursued,
constitute a pure, value-free method of obtaining knowledge about
the natural world. In light of the social and normative dimensions
of many scientific debates, Helen Longino finds that general
accounts of scientific methodology cannot support this common
belief. Focusing on the notion of evidence, the author argues that
a methodology powerful enough to account for theories of any scope
and depth is incapable of ruling out the influence of social and
cultural values in the very structuring of knowledge. The
objectivity of scientific inquiry can nevertheless be maintained,
she proposes, by understanding scientific inquiry as a social
rather than an individual process. Seeking to open a dialogue
between methodologists and social critics of the sciences, Longino
develops this concept of "contextual empiricism" in an analysis of
research programs that have drawn criticism from feminists.
Examining theories of human evolution and of prenatal hormonal
determination of "gender-role" behavior, of sex differences in
cognition, and of sexual orientation, the author shows how
assumptions laden with social values affect the description,
presentation, and interpretation of data. In particular, Longino
argues that research on the hormonal basis of "sex-differentiated
behavior" involves assumptions not only about gender relations but
also about human action and agency. She concludes with a discussion
of the relation between science, values, and ideology, based on the
work of Habermas, Foucault, Keller, and Haraway.
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