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This work highlights the physical chemistry of surfactant
solutions, detailing a fundamental method of selecting surfactants
for agrochemical formulations and delineating how surfactants
enhance the biological efficacy of agrochemicals. The unique
properties of surfactants that have a major influence on the
performance of an agrochemical are summarized.;The book is intended
for physical, surface and colloid chemists; biochemists;
microbiologists; agronomists; research and development personnel in
the pesticide and fertilizer industries; and upper-level
undergraduate and graduate students taking chemistry and chemical
engineering courses.;College and university bookstores may order
five or more copies at a special price which is available on
request from Marcel Dekker Inc.
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Emulsionen
Tharwat F. Tadros
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Volume 2 of Formulation Science and Technology is a survey of the
different types of formulations used in the chemical industry and
offers numerous real-world examples of foams, gels, latexes etc. It
offers in-depth explanations for research scientists, universities,
and industry practitioners looking for a complete understanding of
which type formulation works best for a certain application and
why.
Volume 3 of Formulation Science and Technology is a survey of the
applications of formulations in a variety of fields, based on the
theories presented in Volumes 1 and 2. It offers in-depth
explanations and a wealth of real-world examples for research
scientists, universities, and industry practitioners in the fields
of Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics and Personal Care.
Volume 4 of Formulation Science and Technology is a survey of the
applications of formulations in a variety of fields, based on the
theories presented in Volumes 1 and 2. It offers in-depth
explanations and a wealth of real-world examples for research
scientists, universities, and industry practitioners in the fields
of Agrochemicals, Paints and Coatings and Food Colloids.
Volume 3 of the Handbook of Colloid and Interface Science is a
survey into the applications of colloids in a variety of fields,
based on theories presented in Volumes 1 and 2. The Handbook
provides a complete understanding of how colloids and interfaces
can be applied in materials science, chemical engineering, and
colloidal science. It is ideally suited as reference work for
research scientists, universities, and industries.
Volume 4 of the Handbook of Colloid and Interface Science is a
survey into the applications of colloids in a variety of fields,
based on theories presented in Volumes 1 and 2. The Handbook
provides a complete understanding of how colloids and interfaces
can be applied in materials science, chemical engineering, and
colloidal science. It is ideally suited as reference work for
research scientists, universities, and industries.
Volume 1 of the Handbook of Colloid and Interface Science is a
survey of the theory of colloids in a variety of fields, as well as
theircharacterization by rheology. It is an ideal reference work
for research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners
looking for a complete understanding of how colloids and interfaces
behave.
Volume 2 of the Handbook of Colloid and Interface Science is a
survey into the theory of dispersions in a variety of fields, as
well as characterization by rheology. It is an ideal reference work
for research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners
looking for a complete understanding of how colloids and interfaces
behave in the areas of materials science, chemical engineering, and
colloidal science.
Polymeric Surfactants covers the structure and stability origins of
these highly useful surfactants. Adsorption and solution properties
in emulsions are discussed based on their underlying thermodynamics
and kinetics. Research scientists and Ph.D. students investigating
chemistry, chemical engineering and colloidal science will benefit
from this text on polymeric surfactants and their value in
preparation and stabilization of disperse systems.
Suspension Concentrates is a survey into the theory of the
formulation and stabilization of suspensions, elaborating on the
breaking of aggregates and agglomerates and the role of dispersing
agents on flocculation and electrostatic and steric stabilization.
Practical analysis by rheology is discussed. Suspension
Concentrates is ideal for research scientists and Ph.D. students
investigating chemistry, chemical engineering and colloidal
science.
Formulations starts with a general introduction, explaining
interaction forces between particles and droplets, self-assembly
systems, polymeric surfactants and nanoemulsions. The second part
covers the industrial examples ranging from foams, soaps over to
hair care, sunscreen and make-up products. Combines information
needed by formulation chemists as well as researchers in the
cosmetic industry due the increasing number of products.
Chapter 1 General Introduction Definition of emulsions and the role
of the emulsifier. Classification based on the nature of the
emulsifier. Classification based on the structure of the system.
General instability problems with emulsions :
creaming/sedimentation, flocculation, Ostwald ripening, coalescence
and phase inversion. Importance of emulsions in various industrial
applications. Chapter 2 Thermodynamics of Emulsion Formation and
Breakdown Application of the second law of thermodynamics for
emulsion formation : Balance of energy and entropy and
non-spontaneous formation of emulsions. Breakdown of the emulsion
by flocculation and coalescence in the absence of an emulsifier.
Role of the emulsifier in preventing flocculation and coalescence
by creating an energy barrier resulting from the repulsive energies
between the droplets. Chapter 3 Interaction Forces between Emulsion
Droplets Van der Waals attraction and its dependence on droplet
size, Hamaker constant and separation distance between the
droplets. Electrostatic repulsion resulting from the presence of
electrical double layers and its dependence on surface (or zeta)
potential and electrolyte concentration and valency. Combination of
the van der Waals attraction with double layer repulsion and the
theory of colloid stability. Steric repulsion resulting from the
presence of adsorbed non-ionic surfactants and polymers.
Combination of van der Waals attraction with steric repulsion and
the theory of steric stabilisation. Chapter 4 Adsorption of
Surfactants at the Oil/Water Interface Thermodynamic analysis of
surfactant adsorption and the Gibbs adsorption isotherm.
Calculation of the amount of surfactant adsorption and area per
surfactant molecule at the interface. Experimental techniques for
measuring the interfacial tension. Chapter 5 Mechanism of
Emulsification and the Role of the Emulsifier Description of the
factors responsible for droplet deformation and its break-up. Role
of surfactant in preventing coalescence during emulsification.
Definition of the Gibbs dilational elasticity and the Marangoni
effect in preventing coalescence. Chapter 6 Methods of
Emulsification Pipe flow, static mixers and high speed stirrers
(rotor-stator mixer). Laminar and turbulent flow. Membrane
emulsification. High pressure homogenisers and ultrasonic methods.
Chapter 7 Selection of Emulsifiers The
hydrophilic-lipophilic-balance (HLB) and its application in
surfactant selection. Calculation of HLB numbers and the effect of
the nature of the oil phase. The phase inversion temperature (PIT)
method for emulsifier selection. The cohesive energy ratio method
for emulsifier selection. Chapter 8 Creaming/Sedimentation of
Emulsions and its prevention Driving force for
creaming/sedimentation: effect of gravity, droplet size and density
difference between the oil and continuous phase. Calculation of the
rate of creaming/sedimentation in dilute emulsions. Influence of
increase of the volume fraction of the disperse phase on the rate
of creaming/sedimentation. Reduction of creaming/sedimentation:
Balance of the density of the two phases, reduction of droplet size
and effect of addition of ''thickeners'. Chapter 9 Flocculation of
Emulsions and its Prevention Factors affecting flocculation.
Calculation of fast and slow flocculation rate. Definition of
stability ratio and its dependence on electrolyte concentration and
valency. Definition of the critical coagulation concentration and
its dependence on electrolyte valency. Reduction of flocculation by
enhancing the repulsive forces. Chapter 10 Ostwald Ripening and its
Reduction Factors responsible for Ostwald ripening : difference in
solubility between small and large droplets and the Kelvin
equation. Calculation of the rate of Ostwald ripening. Reduction of
Ostwald ripening by incorporation of a small amount of highly
insoluble oil. Reduction of Ostwald ripening by the use of strongly
adsorbed polymeric surfactant and enhancement of the Gibbs
elasticity. Chapter 11 Emulsion Coalescence and its Prevention
Driving force for emulsion coalescence : Thinning and disruption of
the liquid film between the droplets. The concept of disjoining
pressure for prevention of coalescence. Methods for reduction or
elimination of coalescence : Use of mixed surfactant films, use of
lamellar liquid crystalline phases and use of polymeric
surfactants. Chapter 12 Phase Inversion and its Prevention
Distinction between catastrophic and transient phase inversion.
Influence of the disperse volume fraction and surfactant HLB
number. Explanation of the factors responsible for phase inversion.
Chapter 13 Characterisation of Emulsions Measurement of droplet
size distribution : Optical microscopy and image analysis. Phase
contrast and polarising microscopyDiffraction methods. Confocal
laser microscopy. Back scattering methods Chapter 14 Industrial
Application of Emulsions 14.1 Application in Pharmacy 14.2
Application in Cosmetics 14.3 Application in Agrochemicals 14.4
Application in Paints 14.5 Application in the Oil Industry
General introduction - Definition of nanodispersions
(nanosuspensions, nanoemulsions, swollen micelles or
microemulsions, liposomes and vesicles) and their size range.
General description of their colloid stability. Main advantages of
nanodispersions and their industrial applications. Preparation of
nanosuspensions by top-up process - Nucleation and growth and
control of particle size distribution. Factors determining the
formation of narrow particle size distribution. Role of surfactants
and polymers. Preparation of nano-polymer colloids (lattices) by
emulsion and dispersion polymerization. Factors affects the
stability of nanosuspensions. Preparation of nanosuspensions by
bottom down process - Dispersion of preformed particles in liquids
and the need of a wetting agent. Break-up of aggregates and
agglomerates by application of high speed stirrers. Reduction of
particle size by application of intense energy (microfluidization
or bead milling). Maintenance of the colloid stability of the
resulting particles. Reduction of Ostwald ripening. Industrial
applications of nanosuspensions - Application in pharmacy to
enhance bioavailability, Application in sunscreens for UV
protection. Application in paints and coatings. Preparation of
nanoemulsions by the use of high pressure homogenisers - Principles
of emulsion formation and the role of the emulsifier. Selection of
emulsifiers. Methods of emulsification and prevention of
coalescence during emulsification. Origin of colloid stability of
nanoemulsions. Prevention of Ostwald ripening Low energy methods
for nanoemulsion preparation - The phase inversion composition
method and the role of mixing the surfactant with oil and water.
The phase inversion temperature method for preparation of
nanoemulsions. Preparation of nanoemulsions by dilution of
microemulsions. Practical examples of nanoemulsions and their
industrial application - Nanoemulsions based on non-ionic
surfactants and the role of the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance.
Effect of oil solubility on the stabilityof nanoemulsions.
Nanoemulsions based on polymeric surfactants. Applications in
pharmacy and cosmetics. Swollen micelles or
microemulsionsDefinition of microemulsions and their size range.
Thermodynamic definition of microemulstions. Theories of
microemulsion formation and stability. Characterisation of
microemulsions using scattering, conductivity and NMR rechniques.
Formulation of microemulsions and their industrial applications -
Distinction between microemulsions and macroemulsions. Formulation
of oil/water and water/oil microemulsions. Selection of emulsifiers
for microemulsions. Application of microemulsions in tertiary oil
recovery. Liposomes and vesicles - Formation of multilamellar lipid
layers (liposomes) by dispersion of lipids in water. Formation of
unilamellar vesicles by sonication of the liposomes. Factors
responsible for stabilisation of liposomes and vesicles. Use of
block copolymers to enhance the stability of vesicles. Applications
of liposomes and vesicles in pharmacy and cosmetics.
The main objective of this volume is to demonstrate the importance
of the fundamental aspects of interfacial phenomena in various
industrial applications. The text provides the reader with the
knowledge that is essential for the composition of the complex
multi-phase systems used in the above mentioned areas of
application. It should enable the physical and formulation chemist
as well as the chemical engineer in designing the formulation on
the basis of a rational approach. It will also enable the
formulation scientist to better understanding the factors
responsible for producing a stable product with optimum application
conditions. The book should also be very useful for teaching the
subject of formulation at academic institutions.
This fundamental book on interfacial phenomena forms the basis of
application of interface and colloid science to various disperse
systems. These include suspensions, emulsions, nano-dispersions,
wetting, spreading, deposition and adhesion of particles to
surfaces. These systems occur in most industrial applications, such
as personal care and cosmetic formulations, pharmaceutical systems
particularly for controlled and targeted delivery of drugs,
agrochemical formulations and enhancement of their biological
performance, paints and coatings as well as most food formulations.
These applications are described in volume 2. The text is very
valuable for formulation chemists, chemical engineers and
technologies who are involved in such applications. In addition
this fundamental text is also valuable for research scientists and
Ph.D. students investigating various aspects of interface and
colloid science.
Volume 1 of Formulation Science and Technology is a survey of the
theory of formulations in a variety of fields, as well as their
rheological characterization. It offers in-depth explanations for
research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners
looking for a complete understanding of how different formulations
behave and how to influence their performance.
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