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Emulsions - Formation, Stability, Industrial Applications (Paperback, Digital original)
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Emulsions - Formation, Stability, Industrial Applications (Paperback, Digital original)
Series: De Gruyter Textbook
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Chapter 1 General Introduction Definition of emulsions and the role
of the emulsifier. Classification based on the nature of the
emulsifier. Classification based on the structure of the system.
General instability problems with emulsions :
creaming/sedimentation, flocculation, Ostwald ripening, coalescence
and phase inversion. Importance of emulsions in various industrial
applications. Chapter 2 Thermodynamics of Emulsion Formation and
Breakdown Application of the second law of thermodynamics for
emulsion formation : Balance of energy and entropy and
non-spontaneous formation of emulsions. Breakdown of the emulsion
by flocculation and coalescence in the absence of an emulsifier.
Role of the emulsifier in preventing flocculation and coalescence
by creating an energy barrier resulting from the repulsive energies
between the droplets. Chapter 3 Interaction Forces between Emulsion
Droplets Van der Waals attraction and its dependence on droplet
size, Hamaker constant and separation distance between the
droplets. Electrostatic repulsion resulting from the presence of
electrical double layers and its dependence on surface (or zeta)
potential and electrolyte concentration and valency. Combination of
the van der Waals attraction with double layer repulsion and the
theory of colloid stability. Steric repulsion resulting from the
presence of adsorbed non-ionic surfactants and polymers.
Combination of van der Waals attraction with steric repulsion and
the theory of steric stabilisation. Chapter 4 Adsorption of
Surfactants at the Oil/Water Interface Thermodynamic analysis of
surfactant adsorption and the Gibbs adsorption isotherm.
Calculation of the amount of surfactant adsorption and area per
surfactant molecule at the interface. Experimental techniques for
measuring the interfacial tension. Chapter 5 Mechanism of
Emulsification and the Role of the Emulsifier Description of the
factors responsible for droplet deformation and its break-up. Role
of surfactant in preventing coalescence during emulsification.
Definition of the Gibbs dilational elasticity and the Marangoni
effect in preventing coalescence. Chapter 6 Methods of
Emulsification Pipe flow, static mixers and high speed stirrers
(rotor-stator mixer). Laminar and turbulent flow. Membrane
emulsification. High pressure homogenisers and ultrasonic methods.
Chapter 7 Selection of Emulsifiers The
hydrophilic-lipophilic-balance (HLB) and its application in
surfactant selection. Calculation of HLB numbers and the effect of
the nature of the oil phase. The phase inversion temperature (PIT)
method for emulsifier selection. The cohesive energy ratio method
for emulsifier selection. Chapter 8 Creaming/Sedimentation of
Emulsions and its prevention Driving force for
creaming/sedimentation: effect of gravity, droplet size and density
difference between the oil and continuous phase. Calculation of the
rate of creaming/sedimentation in dilute emulsions. Influence of
increase of the volume fraction of the disperse phase on the rate
of creaming/sedimentation. Reduction of creaming/sedimentation:
Balance of the density of the two phases, reduction of droplet size
and effect of addition of ''thickeners'. Chapter 9 Flocculation of
Emulsions and its Prevention Factors affecting flocculation.
Calculation of fast and slow flocculation rate. Definition of
stability ratio and its dependence on electrolyte concentration and
valency. Definition of the critical coagulation concentration and
its dependence on electrolyte valency. Reduction of flocculation by
enhancing the repulsive forces. Chapter 10 Ostwald Ripening and its
Reduction Factors responsible for Ostwald ripening : difference in
solubility between small and large droplets and the Kelvin
equation. Calculation of the rate of Ostwald ripening. Reduction of
Ostwald ripening by incorporation of a small amount of highly
insoluble oil. Reduction of Ostwald ripening by the use of strongly
adsorbed polymeric surfactant and enhancement of the Gibbs
elasticity. Chapter 11 Emulsion Coalescence and its Prevention
Driving force for emulsion coalescence : Thinning and disruption of
the liquid film between the droplets. The concept of disjoining
pressure for prevention of coalescence. Methods for reduction or
elimination of coalescence : Use of mixed surfactant films, use of
lamellar liquid crystalline phases and use of polymeric
surfactants. Chapter 12 Phase Inversion and its Prevention
Distinction between catastrophic and transient phase inversion.
Influence of the disperse volume fraction and surfactant HLB
number. Explanation of the factors responsible for phase inversion.
Chapter 13 Characterisation of Emulsions Measurement of droplet
size distribution : Optical microscopy and image analysis. Phase
contrast and polarising microscopyDiffraction methods. Confocal
laser microscopy. Back scattering methods Chapter 14 Industrial
Application of Emulsions 14.1 Application in Pharmacy 14.2
Application in Cosmetics 14.3 Application in Agrochemicals 14.4
Application in Paints 14.5 Application in the Oil Industry
General
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