The nematode C. elegans is one of the most important model organisms for understanding neurobiology. Its completely mapped neural connectome of 302 neurons and fully characterized and stereotyped development have made it a prototype for understanding nervous system structure, development, and function. Fifty-six out of C. elegans' total of 959 somatic cells are classified as neuroglia. Although research on worm glia has lagged behind studies focused on neurons, there has been a steep upswing in interest during the past decade. Information arising from the recent burst of research on worm glia supports the idea that C. elegans will continue to be an important animal model for understanding glial cell biology. Since the developmental lineage of all cells was mapped, each glial cell in C. elegans is known by a specific name and has research associated with it. We list and describe the glia of the hermaphrodite form of C. elegans and summarize research findings relating to each glial cell. We hope this lecture provides an informative overview of worm glia to accompany the excellent and freely available online resources available to the worm research community.

This book offers a comprehensive overview of Alexander disease, a rare and devastating neurological disorder that often affects the white matter of the brain and spinal cord. Its distinctive neuropathology consists of abundant Rosenthal fibers within astrocytes (one of the four major cell types of the central nervous system). Nearly all cases are caused by variants in the gene encoding the intermediate filament protein GFAP, but how these changes in GFAP lead to the widespread manifestations of disease is poorly understood. Astrocytes, while discovered over a century ago, are themselves still much of a mystery. They exhibit considerable diversity, defy precise definition, and yet actively regulate many aspects of nervous system functioning. We also have incomplete understanding of Rosenthal fibers, odd structures that contain GFAP as just one of many components. Whether they are toxic or protective is unknown. Moreover, Rosenthal fibers are not absolutely unique to Alexander disease, and are seen sporadically in a wide variety of other conditions, including brain tumors and multiple sclerosis. GFAP is the third unknown. It is an ancient protein, arising early in the evolution of vertebrates, but its role in normal biology is still a matter of debate. Yet Alexander disease shows, without a doubt, that changing just a single of its 432 amino acids can lead to catastrophe, not just in the astrocytes where GFAP is produced but also in the other cells with which astrocytes interact. Despite all of the unknowns, much has been learned in the past 20 years, and it is time to share this knowledge. This book is intended for recently diagnosed patients and families, as well as non-specialist researchers interested in this neurological disease. It covers historical origins, the state of current knowledge, and prospects for what lies ahead, with citations to the primary literature given throughout.

ATP acts as main energy source and is pivotal for numerous signaling cascades both inside the cells (by fuelling various transport systems and donating phosphate groups) and between the cells (by chemical transmission). Similarly glutamate acts as an important molecule for both intercellular signaling though glutamatergic transmission and cell energetics by contributing to ATP production. In this collection of chapters, written by the leading experts in the field of cell metabolism and energetics, intracellular signaling and neurotransmission we covered various aspects of the interfacing between these two fundamental molecules. This book will be particularly useful for researchers, students, physicians and psychotherapists working in the field of neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

Pathophysiological states, neurological and psychiatric diseases are almost universally considered from the neurocentric point of view, with neurons being the principal cellular element of pathological process. The brain homeostasis, which lies at the fulcrum of healthy brain function, the compromise of which invariably results in dysfunction/disease, however, is entirely controlled by neuroglia. It is becoming clear that neuroglial cells are involved in various aspects of initiation, progression and resolution of neuropathology. In this book we aim to integrate the body of information that has accumulated in recent years revealing the active role of glia in such pathophysiological processes. Understanding roles of glial cells in pathology will provide new targets for medical intervention and aide the development of much needed therapeutics. This book will be particularly useful for researchers, students, physicians and psychotherapists working in the field of neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

This text book will bring together a mix of both internationally known and established senior scientists along side up and coming (but already accomplished) junior scientists that have varying expertise in fundamental and applied nanotechnology to biology and medicine.

This book provides a comprehensive overview of the role of neuroglia in neurodegenerative diseases. Neuroglia are the most abundant cells in the nervous system and consist of several distinct cell types, such as astrocytes, oligodendrocytes,and microglia. Accumulating evidence suggests that neuroglia participate in the neurodegenerative process, and as such are essential players in a variety of diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's. Intended for researchers and students, the book presents recent advances concerning the biology of neuroglia as well as their interaction with neurons during disease progression. In addition, to highlight the function of neuroglia in different types of neurodegenerative disease, it also discusses their mechanisms and effects on protecting or damaging neurons.

This contributed volume discusses the multiple roles of astrocytes, which determine the progression and outcome of neuropsychiatric diseases. This emerging area of study examines the ways in which astrocytes are involved in various aspects of disease initiation, progression and resolution. This monograph aims to integrate the body of information that has accumulated in recent years revealing the active role of astrocytes in neuropsychiatric pathology and in psychiatric disorders. Understanding roles of astrocytes in pathology will provide new targets for medical intervention and aid the development of much needed therapeutics. This book will be valuable for researchers and workers in the fields of neurobiology, neurology, and psychiatry, as well as fill the need for a textbook used in advanced courses/graduate seminars in glial pathophysiology.

Astrocytes were the original neuroglia that Ramon y Cajal visualized in 1913 using a gold sublimate stain. This stain targeted intermediate filaments that we now know consist mainly of glial fibrillary acidic protein, a protein used today as an astrocytic marker. Cajal described the morphological diversity of these cells with some ast- cytes surrounding neurons, while the others are intimately associated with vasculature. We start the book by discussing the heterogeneity of astrocytes using contemporary tools and by calling into question the assumption by classical neuroscience that neurons and glia are derived from distinct pools of progenitor cells. Astrocytes have long been neglected as active participants in intercellular communication and information processing in the central nervous system, in part due to their lack of electrical excitability. The follow up chapters review the "nuts and bolts" of ast- cytic physiology; astrocytes possess a diverse assortment of ion channels, neu- transmitter receptors, and transport mechanisms that enable the astrocytes to respond to many of the same signals that act on neurons. Since astrocytes can detect chemical transmitters that are released from neurons and can release their own extracellular signals there is an increasing awareness that they play physiological roles in regulating neuronal activity and synaptic transmission. In addition to these physiological roles, it is becoming increasingly recognized that astrocytes play critical roles during pathophysiological states of the nervous system; these states include gliomas, Alexander disease, and epilepsy to mention a few.

Glia, the non-neuronal cells in the nervous systems, are both passive and active participants in diverse arrays of neuronal function. The diversity of glial cells in various animal species appears to be correlated with the complexity of brains. In the animal Drosophila melanogaster, glia are similarly categorized to their mammalian counterparts in morphology and function. Surface glia cover the outermost surface of the brain and function as a blood-brain-barrier to protect the nervous system. Cortex glia, similar to mammalian astrocytes, enwrap around the neuronal cell bodies and provide trophic support. Neuropil glia, similar to mammalian astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, are closely associated with the synapse-enriched neuropils and regulate synapse formation, synaptic function, and underlie the mechanism of circuit and behavior. This short monograph focuses on Drosophila glia, discusses the classification of different glial subtypes and their developmental origins, and provides an overview of different glial-mediated activity crucial for the development and function of the nervous system. This context serves as a general introduction to the molecular and cellular basis of glial function in normal and pathological brains.

Glial Neuronal Signaling fills a need for a monograph/textbook to be used in advanced courses or graduate seminars aimed at exploring glial-neuronal interactions. Even experts in the field will find useful the authoritative summaries of evidence on ion channels and transporters in glia, genes involved in signaling during development, metabolic cross talk and cooperation between astrocytes and neurons, to mention but a few of the timely summaries of a wide range of glial-neuronal interactions. The chapters are written by the top researchers in the field of glial-neuronal signaling, and cover the most current advances in this field. The book will also be of value to the workers in the field of cell biology in general. Illustrations included in the accompanying CD are suitable for professional presentations and instructional materials by researchers, physicians, teachers and members of the pharmaceutical industry. When we think about the brain we usually think about neurons. Although there are 100 billion neurons in mammalian brain, these cells do not constitute a majority. Quite the contrary, glial cells and other non-neuronal cells are 10-50 times more numerous than neurons. This book is meant to integrate the emerging body of information that has been accumulating, revealing the interactive nature of the brain's two major neural cell types, neurons and glia, in brain function. The text is supported by the CD containing all pictures, including color, tables and movies.

ATP acts as main energy source and is pivotal for numerous signaling cascades both inside the cells (by fuelling various transport systems and donating phosphate groups) and between the cells (by chemical transmission). Similarly glutamate acts as an important molecule for both intercellular signaling though glutamatergic transmission and cell energetics by contributing to ATP production. In this collection of chapters, written by the leading experts in the field of cell metabolism and energetics, intracellular signaling and neurotransmission we covered various aspects of the interfacing between these two fundamental molecules. This book will be particularly useful for researchers, students, physicians and psychotherapists working in the field of neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

This text book will bring together a mix of both internationally known and established senior scientists along side up and coming (but already accomplished) junior scientists that have varying expertise in fundamental and applied nanotechnology to biology and medicine.

This contributed volume discusses the multiple roles of astrocytes, which determine the progression and outcome of neuropsychiatric diseases. This emerging area of study examines the ways in which astrocytes are involved in various aspects of disease initiation, progression and resolution. This monograph aims to integrate the body of information that has accumulated in recent years revealing the active role of astrocytes in neuropsychiatric pathology and in psychiatric disorders. Understanding roles of astrocytes in pathology will provide new targets for medical intervention and aid the development of much needed therapeutics. This book will be valuable for researchers and workers in the fields of neurobiology, neurology, and psychiatry, as well as fill the need for a textbook used in advanced courses/graduate seminars in glial pathophysiology.

This book provides a comprehensive overview of the role of neuroglia in neurodegenerative diseases. Neuroglia are the most abundant cells in the nervous system and consist of several distinct cell types, such as astrocytes, oligodendrocytes,and microglia. Accumulating evidence suggests that neuroglia participate in the neurodegenerative process, and as such are essential players in a variety of diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's. Intended for researchers and students, the book presents recent advances concerning the biology of neuroglia as well as their interaction with neurons during disease progression. In addition, to highlight the function of neuroglia in different types of neurodegenerative disease, it also discusses their mechanisms and effects on protecting or damaging neurons.

Pathophysiological states, neurological and psychiatric diseases are almost universally considered from the neurocentric point of view, with neurons being the principal cellular element of pathological process. The brain homeostasis, which lies at the fulcrum of healthy brain function, the compromise of which invariably results in dysfunction/disease, however, is entirely controlled by neuroglia. It is becoming clear that neuroglial cells are involved in various aspects of initiation, progression and resolution of neuropathology. In this book we aim to integrate the body of information that has accumulated in recent years revealing the active role of glia in such pathophysiological processes. Understanding roles of glial cells in pathology will provide new targets for medical intervention and aide the development of much needed therapeutics. This book will be particularly useful for researchers, students, physicians and psychotherapists working in the field of neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

Glial Neuronal Signaling fills a need for a monograph/textbook to be used in advanced courses or graduate seminars aimed at exploring glial-neuronal interactions. Even experts in the field will find useful the authoritative summaries of evidence on ion channels and transporters in glia, genes involved in signaling during development, metabolic cross talk and cooperation between astrocytes and neurons, to mention but a few of the timely summaries of a wide range of glial-neuronal interactions. The chapters are written by the top researchers in the field of glial-neuronal signaling, and cover the most current advances in this field. The book will also be of value to the workers in the field of cell biology in general. When we think about the brain we usually think about neurons. Although there are 100 billion neurons in mammalian brain, these cells do not constitute a majority. Quite the contrary, glial cells and other non-neuronal cells are 10-50 times more numerous than neurons. This book is meant to integrate the emerging body of information that has been accumulating, revealing the interactive nature of the brain's two major neural cell types, neurons and glia, in brain function.

Glia, the non-neuronal cells in the nervous systems, are both passive and active participants in diverse arrays of neuronal function. The diversity of glial cells in various animal species appears to be correlated with the complexity of brains. In the animal Drosophila melanogaster, glia are similarly categorized to their mammalian counterparts in morphology and function. Surface glia cover the outermost surface of the brain and function as a blood-brain-barrier to protect the nervous system. Cortex glia, similar to mammalian astrocytes, enwrap around the neuronal cell bodies and provide trophic support. Neuropil glia, similar to mammalian astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, are closely associated with the synapse-enriched neuropils and regulate synapse formation, synaptic function, and underlie the mechanism of circuit and behavior. This short monograph focuses on Drosophila glia, discusses the classification of different glial subtypes and their developmental origins, and provides an overview of different glial-mediated activity crucial for the development and function of the nervous system. This context serves as a general introduction to the molecular and cellular basis of glial function in normal and pathological brains.

The nematode C. elegans is one of the most important model organisms for understanding neurobiology. Its completely mapped neural connectome of 302 neurons and fully characterized and stereotyped development have made it a prototype for understanding nervous system structure, development, and function. Fifty-six out of C. elegans' total of 959 somatic cells are classified as neuroglia. Although research on worm glia has lagged behind studies focused on neurons, there has been a steep upswing in interest during the past decade. Information arising from the recent burst of research on worm glia supports the idea that C. elegans will continue to be an important animal model for understanding glial cell biology. Since the developmental lineage of all cells was mapped, each glial cell in C. elegans is known by a specific name and has research associated with it. We list and describe the glia of the hermaphrodite form of C. elegans and summarize research findings relating to each glial cell. We hope this lecture provides an informative overview of worm glia to accompany the excellent and freely available online resources available to the worm research community.

This book offers a comprehensive overview of Alexander disease, a rare and devastating neurological disorder that often affects the white matter of the brain and spinal cord. Its distinctive neuropathology consists of abundant Rosenthal fibers within astrocytes (one of the four major cell types of the central nervous system). Nearly all cases are caused by variants in the gene encoding the intermediate filament protein GFAP, but how these changes in GFAP lead to the widespread manifestations of disease is poorly understood. Astrocytes, while discovered over a century ago, are themselves still much of a mystery. They exhibit considerable diversity, defy precise definition, and yet actively regulate many aspects of nervous system functioning. We also have incomplete understanding of Rosenthal fibers, odd structures that contain GFAP as just one of many components. Whether they are toxic or protective is unknown. Moreover, Rosenthal fibers are not absolutely unique to Alexander disease, and are seen sporadically in a wide variety of other conditions, including brain tumors and multiple sclerosis. GFAP is the third unknown. It is an ancient protein, arising early in the evolution of vertebrates, but its role in normal biology is still a matter of debate. Yet Alexander disease shows, without a doubt, that changing just a single of its 432 amino acids can lead to catastrophe, not just in the astrocytes where GFAP is produced but also in the other cells with which astrocytes interact. Despite all of the unknowns, much has been learned in the past 20 years, and it is time to share this knowledge. This book is intended for recently diagnosed patients and families, as well as non-specialist researchers interested in this neurological disease. It covers historical origins, the state of current knowledge, and prospects for what lies ahead, with citations to the primary literature given throughout.

Astrocytes can be defined as the glia inhabiting the nervous system with the main function in the maintenance of nervous tissue homeostasis. Classified into several types according to their morphological appearance, many of astrocytes form a reticular structure known as astroglial syncytium, owing to their coupling via intercellular channels organized into gap junctions. Not only do astrocytes establish such homocellular contacts, but they also engage in intimate heterocellular interactions with neurons, most notably at synaptic sites. As synaptic structures house the very core of information transfer and processing in the nervous system, astroglial perisynaptic positioning assures that these glial cells can nourish neurons and establish bidirectional communication with them, functions outlined in the concepts of the astrocytic cradle and multi-partite synapse, respectively. Astrocytes possess a rich assortment of ligand receptors, ion and water channels, and ion and ligand transporters, which collectively contribute to astrocytic control of homeostasis and excitability. Astroglia control glutamate and adenosine homeostasis to exert modulatory actions affecting the real-time operation of synapses. Fluctuations of intracellular calcium can lead to the release of various chemical transmitters from astrocytes through a process termed gliotransmission. Sodium fluctuations are closely associated to those of calcium with both dynamic events interfacing signaling and metabolism. Astrocytes appear fully integrated into the brain cellular circuitry, being an indispensable part of neural networks.

This book is the introduction to a series of e-books dedicated to the physiology and pathophysiology of neuroglia. The topic of neuroglia is generally overlooked in neuroscience curricula across the world, the main attention being focused on the description of excitability of neurons and neuronal networks. The neuroglia, being electrically non-excitable, are universally regarded as supportive cells which do not contribute to information processing. This oversimplified view, however, ignores the tremendous importance of brain homeostasis, which is imperative for the ongoing activity of neuronal networks. It also ignores the truth that specialization of neurons and their ability for rapid propagation and multi-level integration of signals become possible only because of delegation of homeostatic abilities to neuroglia. Furthermore, glial cells contribute to information processing as they can modulate neuronal synaptic transmission. Finally, neuroglia provide the only system of brain defense and as such these cells are intimately involved in all types of neuropathologies, and contribute to both neuroprotection and regeneration of the nervous system. The e-books in this series provide a platform for in-depth learning of all aspects of neuroglial cells function in health and disease.