Planning is defined as formulating an organized method for action in advance. Although people do not plan all the time and planning does not occur in every situation, planning skill is central to all human behavior. There are developmental differences in planning skill and in the motivation to plan. Even among adults, variations in the engagement in the planning process are affected by individual attitudes, beliefs, and goals. Planning also has a different meaning at various junctures in one's life. Yet despite the amount of research on planning, many of the studies have focused only on the cognitive processes that enable mature individuals to plan.
A continued exploration of the developmental course of planning, this text attempts to situate cognitive aspects of planning in the context of the social and cultural environment and other psychological processes. Bringing together the contributions of developmental, organizational, and social psychologists, it explains how, when, and why we plan. Finally, it addresses various issues that pertain to the different aspects of planning, from formal problem solving to handling the demands of everyday life.

This book and the symposium on which it was based were designed to cross the boundaries of subdiscipline and theoretical orientation to address four critical issues in understanding development: explanation of change and development; the nature and process of change; forms of variability in performance; and the promotion of change through application.

The chapters suggest that change and development in target systems from cells to selves, may not be explainable, assessable, or promotable without careful reference to the context (social and otherwise) of the system, and that the process of change and development may involve variability of the system in addition to periods of stability. Together the chapters harken back to the spirit of the grand theory.

Instead of proposing a grand theory, they provide an excellent foundation for considering the importance of an individual's (or particular group's) context and variability, and discussions to facilitate thinking about what still needs to be worked out.

Offering a unique focus on the development of human communication, this book integrates and synthesizes a more comprehensive array of research than most investigations of communicative development. As such, it incorporates materials dealing with the development of nonverbal communication, language, and cognition, and examines how they are integrated in the growing child's everyday interaction. This information is distilled into a set of key principles and practices--culled from a variety of fields including developmental and social psychology, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and communication--for parents or adults interested in child development.
While this book does not offer an in-depth view in any one area, it provides a comprehensive overview of the various components of human communicative development and its significance for the child's cognitive and emotional growth. It is quite clear that developmental processes are constrained by multiple influences whose interactions have just begun to be uncovered. Examining the diverse facets of communicative development will enable professionals to garner further insights into the mystery of human communication.

This volume provides a thorough examination of the interplay between individuals and their environment in the development and maintenance of problem behaviors, and delineates procedures for conducting assessment, intervention, and prevention within the child's ecosystem. As individuals structure, change, and organize their environments, their environments work to do the same. Environmental or contextual and individual variables act reciprocally to shape an individual's behavior. For school-aged youth, this reality necessitates an ecological approach to assessment, intervention, and prevention. Specifically, problem behaviors are partly developed and maintained by a combination of factors present in the child's psychosocial ecosystem -- home, school, and community. Although there is an abundance of theoretical applications and research supporting this concept, the predominant trend has been to emphasize the properties of the person. As a result, one is left to assume that the genesis of difficulties in adaptation lies in internal or personal states and traits of the individual.
In contrast to traditional psychology theories which focus primarily on the individual, incorporation of ecological psychology concepts allows for a more comprehensive and in-depth analysis of sources contributing to the individual's ability to adapt to their psychosocial environment. Ecological theories which drive assessment, intervention, and prevention efforts provide the necessary framework for assisting school-aged youth and their associated ecological networks to cope with and overcome the multidetermined, multifaceted concerns that arise during the school years. However, this is an often difficult and cumbersome task for educators, parents, and school systems to undertake.
To this end, this volume focuses on the functional application of ecological psychology for schools within communities. Each of the 10 chapters -- written by key figures in school, family, counseling, and community psychology -- explores the use of ecological theory from a different perspective, ranging from focus on the child, the child within the classroom, the classroom teacher, and the community to considerations in working with special populations such as juvenile delinquents and in planning for developmental issues such as school-to-work-transition. The final chapter summarizes and integrates the previous chapters and provides suggestions for future directions in the field.

This volume, the first in the series, explores the high-functioning group of people within the spectrum of autism disorders. It is the culmination of over a decade of clinical work and research, including the most current information available about this group. Written in a style that is accessible to both seasoned clinicians and concerned lay persons, this volume is a unique resource.

One of the most profound insights of the dynamic systems perspective is that new structures resulting from the developmental process do not need to be planned in advance, nor is it necessary to have these structures represented in genetic or neurological templates prior to their emergence. Rather, new structures can emerge as components of the individual and the environment self-organize; that is, as they mutually constrain each other's actions, new patterns and structures may arise. This theoretical possibility brings into developmental theory the important concept of indeterminism--the possibility that developmental outcomes may not be predictable in any simple linear causal way from their antecedents.
This is the first book to take a critical and serious look at the role of indeterminism in psychological and behavioral development.
* What is the source of this indeterminism?
* What is its role in developmental change?
* Is it merely the result of incomplete observational data or error in measurement?
It reviews the concepts of indeterminism and determinism in their historical, philosophical, and theoretical perspectives--particularly in relation to dynamic systems thinking--and applies these general ideas to systems of nonverbal communication. Stressing the indeterminacy inherent to symbols and meaning making in social systems, several chapters address the issue of indeterminism from metaphorical, modeling, and narrative perspectives. Others discuss those indeterministic processes within the individual related to emotional, social, and cognitive development.

The association between parents' behaviour and children's cognitive development is at the meeting place of several prominent theories of psychological development and a range of complex methodological and conceptual issues. On the one hand there are theories which argue that the impetus of development is within the child and is largely unaffected by his or her experience of social interaction: on the other are the commonsense experience of parents and educators, and the body of neo-Vygotskian theory, which would see the child's development as profoundly affected by social interaction or even constituted by it. The purpose of this book is to examine theories and evidence carefully in order to assess the causal links between parent behaviour and children's cognitive development.
There is a considerable amount of evidence that suggests an association between parents' behaviour and their children's cognitive development; but there are many possible explanations for this association, including direct effects of parental teaching styles on the children's learning and motivation, differential social class practices and opportunities, genetic resemblances, and methodological artifacts. A close and critical look at a wide range of research and of theory is necessary if the causal questions are to be clarified.
This book develops the current arguments about the nature and causes of cognitive development, providing a critical discussion of the available research and relating it to psychological theory. It is suitable for advanced students of psychology and education.

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The term "skill" encompasses an array of topics and issues. For example, individuals are skilled in a variety of domains such as chess, typing, air traffic control, or knitting; researchers study skill in a variety of ways, including speed of acquisition, accuracy of performance, and retention over time; and there are a variety of approaches to the study of skill such as computer modeling or experimental analysis. Contributing to the understanding of whether, how, when, and why skills may decline as a function of age is the goal of this volume.
This book is based on the Aging and Skill Conference sponsored by the Center for Applied Cognitive Research on Aging. The broad focus of the conference was to discuss cognitive theories underlying age-related skill acquisition, transfer, and retention and to discuss applications of these theories to such issues as age-adaptive training, compensatory strategies and devices, and utilization of new and existing technology. The contributors were asked to discuss the cognitive theory relevant to their topic, explain how the theory informs the field about aging, examine where gaps exist among general cognitive theory in this area and theories of aging, and demonstrate the practical relevance of the theory to enhancing or enabling activities of daily living--for work, home, or leisure--for older adults.
This is the first book to focus exclusively on aging and skill. It covers a range of abilities, provides the theoretical basis for the current status of age-related differences in skill, and offers direct evidence of the applicability of research on proficiency to aspects of daily living. Each chapter was written either by an expert in the field of aging, or by an expert in the field of skill--many expert in both areas.

Being sick is a normal part of childhood, and being seriously ill is the unfortunate lot of many children. Every child in the United States has some contact with the healthcare system at some time, and it is estimated that one of every two children or adolescents is hospitalized as a result of illness or injury. Being injured, undergoing routine medical procedures, getting sick, or being hospitalized confront children with challenges on many levels--physical, mental, emotional, and social.
The premise of this volume is that developmental and psychological factors are central elements in many current problems in child health such as persistent crying in infants, sources of children's injury and respiratory illness, children's coping with medical procedures, childhood trauma, and physical and mental well-being in adolescence. Understanding, promoting, and maintaining children's health, therefore, depend to a great extent--and are likely to depend even more in the future--on elucidating the determinants and consequences of children's and parents' health-related behaviors and attitudes.
Chapter contributors include physicians and psychologists who apply principles of developmental and social psychology to their research on specific problems in children's health. Their offerings delineate current areas of collaboration between developmental psychology and behavioral pediatrics. These perspectives should prompt researchers and practitioners to explore additional ways in which more extensive endeavors at the interface of these two disciplines will facilitate efforts to understand children's health behaviors and foster children's well-being. Attention to this work should lead to moredirect clinical applicability and translation for preventive policy strategies as well as therapeutic interventions.

Studies involving children with mental, emotional, or behavioral problems--or their families--have to meet certain standards of research ethics. This book contains chapters on the kinds of ethical dilemmas that typically occur in different types of studies of children, and then presents 65 real-world cases from experts who study children's mental health. These experts offer practical suggestions for how to handle these dilemmas. Chapters on the perspectives of parents, regulators, and bioethicists provide additional points of view on these issues. Written in down-to-earth language, this book will be useful for professionals who study children, for those who train students in research methods, and for parents who are thinking about participating in research studies.
In attempting to bridge the apparent gap between ethics and science, the editors close this volume on a note commonly sounded by researchers: more research is needed. Yet in this area, a new kind of research is required. The science of scientific ethics must be developed and expanded, and better understanding of the determinants and circumstances under which children can comprehend and evaluate risks and benefits is needed. Likewise, fuller knowledge of the contextual factors affecting children's and families' consent to participate in research is essential. In particular, development of scales to assess children's ability to comprehend risk-benefit issues, studies of families' reactions to research procedures, and empirical data on the impact of various forms of participant reimbursement will advance both science and ethics. This volume should spur further research, serving as a guide for current investigators, participating families, institutional review boards, and policymakers who shape the research enterprise.

The second edition of this handbook examines family life, health, and educational issues that often arise for the millions of children in the United States whose parents are in prison or jail. It details how these youth are more likely to exhibit behavior problems such as aggression, substance abuse, learning difficulties, mental health concerns, and physical health issues. It also examines resilience and how children and families thrive even in the face of multiple challenges related to parental incarceration. Chapters integrate diverse; interdisciplinary; and rapidly expanding literature and synthesizes rigorous scholarship to address the needs of children from multiple perspectives, including child welfare; education; health care; mental health; law enforcement; corrections; and law. The handbook concludes with a chapter that explores new directions in research, policy, and practice to improve the life chances of children with incarcerated parents. Topics featured in this handbook include: Findings from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. How parental incarceration contributes to racial and ethnic disparities and inequality. Parent-child visits when parents are incarcerated in prison or jail. Approaches to empowering incarcerated parents of color and their families. International advances for incarcerated parents and their children. The second edition of the Handbook on Children with Incarcerated Parents is an essential reference for researchers, professors, clinicians/practitioners, and graduate students across developmental psychology, criminology, sociology, law, psychiatry, social work, public health, human development, and family studies. "This important new volume provides a cutting-edge update of research on the impact of incarceration on family life. The book will be an essential reference for researchers and practitioners working at the intersections of criminal justice, poverty, and child development." Bruce Western, Ph.D., Columbia University "The comprehensive, interdisciplinary focus of this handbook brilliantly showcases the latest research, interventions, programs, and policies relevant to the well-being of children with incarcerated parents. This edition is a 'must-read' for students, researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers alike who are dedicated to promoting the health and resilience of children affected by parental incarceration." Leslie Leve, Ph.D., University of Oregon

First published in 1996. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

Early emotional development, emotional regulation, and the links between emotion and social or cognitive functioning in atypically developing children have not received much attention. This lack is due in part to the priorities given to the educational and therapeutic needs of these children. Yet an understanding of the basic emotional processes in children with atypical development can only serve to promote more effective strategies for teaching and intervening in the lives of these children and their families and may contribute to our understanding of basic emotional processes as well.
When referring to "emotions," the editors mean some complex set of processes or abilities, whether or not the topic is normal or atypical development. Specifically, they use the term "emotion" to refer to at least three things -- emotional expressions, emotional states, and emotional experiences. The focus of this volume, these three aspects of emotional life are affected by socialization practices, maturational change, and individual biological differences including, in this case, differences in children as a function of disability. Contributors examine the development of emotions in children with organic or psychological disorders as well as those in compromised social contexts making this volume of prime importance to developmental, clinical, and social psychologists, educators, and child mental health experts.

Concern with stress and coping has a long history in biomedical, psychological and sociological research. The inadequacy of simplistic models linking stressful life events and adverse physical and psychological outcomes was pointed out in the early 1980s in a series of seminal papers and books. The issues and theoretical models discussed in this work shaped much of the subsequent research on this topic and are reflected in the papers in this volume. The shift has been away from identifying associations between risks and outcomes to a focus on factors and processes that contribute to diversity in response to risks. Based on the Family Research Consortium's fifth summer institute, this volume focuses on stress and adaptability in families and family members. The papers explore not only how a variety of stresses influence family functioning but also how family process moderates and mediates the contribution of individual and environmental risk and protective factors to personal adjustment. They reveal the complexity of current theoretical models, research strategies and analytic approaches to the study of risk, resiliency and vulnerability along with the central role risk, family process and adaptability play in both normal development and childhood psychopathology.

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This book addresses critical issues related to appropriately servicing gifted students with other learning exceptionalities, also known as twice exceptional (2e) students. Utilizing a social, emotional, and cultural lens, it extends beyond the historical cognitive discussion within the domains of special and gifted education and draws on a variety of interpreted perspectives, featuring leading authors, experts, and specialists from several countries and from different academic disciplines and backgrounds. The collection offers a balance between theoretical/methodological and empirical chapters to provide a discourse for operationalization and implementation of services that best serve the educational and individualized needs for a diverse group of students.This work demonstrates the importance of knowing and attending to the social, emotional and cultural dimensions of 2e students while simultaneously fostering the appropriate cognitive skill development for whole-child well-being.

The culmination of 15 years of research by a Turkish psychologist who was educated in the West, this volume examines both the theoretical and practical aspects of cross-cultural psychology. It takes a contextual-developmental-functional approach linking the child, family, and society as they are embedded in culture. A refreshingly different view, the author presents a portrait of human development from "the other side"--from the perspective of the "majority world." In a world seemingly dominated by American psychology, she proposes the cross-cultural orientation as a corrective to the culture-boundedness of much of Euro-American psychology.
Analyzing human development in context while avoiding the pitfalls of extreme relativism, this work studies development with an inclusive, holistic, and ecological perspective, focusing on the development of the self and of competence. In so doing, it also attempts to combine cultural contextualism with universalistic standards and psychological processes. It proposes a theory of family change which challenges some commonly held modernization assumptions, and links theory and application while examining the role of psychology in inducing social change.

Caregiving role rather than gender has a predominant influence on parent interaction in nonstressful as well as stressful situations. Primary caregiving fathers can competently assume caregiving and nurturant functions so as to become their infants' primary attachment figures.

Based on videotaped home observations, Dr. Geiger examines the unique and interactive effects of the gender of the caregiver and the primacy of the caregiver role on parent-infant interaction. Dr. Geiger observed 56 parents of different gender (father-mother) and caregiving role (primary-secondary) interacting with their infant in a non-stressful situation. Then infants were placed under stress in a modified version of the Strange Situation. A gender X caregiving role analysis of variance indicated no gender or role effect for parents' and infants' affiliative behaviors under nonstressful conditions except for fathers' rough tumble play. A caregiving role and/or a gender X role interaction effect was observed on the attachment behaviors of parents (caregiving and displaying affection) and of infants (displaying affection, clinging, moving away, and exploring). Infants' play interaction was most synchronous with that of primary caregiving fathers. Finally, the caregiver role effect indicated on all infants' attachment behaviors under stress showed a distinctive preference for primary caregivers (fathers or mothers) with disregard for gender.

Dr. Geiger's study indicates that primary caregiving fathers can be as competent as primary and secondary caregiving mothers. They were more affectionate, and despite an increased amount of assumed caregiving and household chores, primary caregiving fathers were more involved and in greater synchrony with their infant's play activities than primary or secondary caregiving mothers. This study challenges sex-role stereotypes and suggests benefits of modeling a more egalitarian upbringing. It presents strategies to resolve the dilemma of day care for infants. This book will be of great interest to students, scholars, and other researchers involved with early childhood education, socioemotional development of children, and developmental psychology, especially once it is acknowledged that father care in the home for infants less than one year of age has become the most common form of primary nonmaternal care arrangement (21.6%) adopted by employed mothers.

This book examines the neuroscience of mathematical cognitive development from infancy into emerging adulthood, addressing both biological and environmental influences on brain development and plasticity. It begins by presenting major theoretical frameworks for designing and interpreting neuroscience studies of mathematical cognitive development, including developmental evolutionary theory, developmental systems approaches, and the triple-code model of numerical processing. The book includes chapters that discuss findings from studies using neuroscience research methods to examine numerical and visuospatial cognition, calculation, and mathematical difficulties and exceptionalities. It concludes with a review of mathematical intervention programs and recommendations for future neuroscience research on mathematical cognitive development. Featured neuroscience research methods include: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI). Event Related Potentials (ERP). Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS). Neuroscience of Mathematical Cognitive Development is an essential resource for researchers, clinicians and related professionals, and graduate students in child and school psychology, neuroscience, educational psychology, neuropsychology, and mathematics education.

Research on the development of metaphor abilities in children can be dated back as far as 1960, with Asch and Nerlove's pioneering study, which concluded that children were unable to understand metaphors until middle or even late childhood. However, the study of metaphor in children did not take off until the 1970s; research continued to show metaphor as a relatively late-developing skill, based on children's inability to paraphrase correctly metaphoric sentences presented out of any situational or narrative context.
In the past decade, research into the development of figurative language has broadened considerably in scope. Efforts have been underway to demonstrate the cognitive underpinnings of the ability to make sense of figurative language and to demonstrate the role of metaphor and its cousin, analogy, in the development of cognition.
Metaphor is now considered to be a central aspect of language and thought and thus a crucial variable in cognitive development. The articles in this issue support the claim that no longer can any theory of language acquisition afford to ignore how children are able to recognize the distinction between what is said and what is meant and how they are able to grasp what is meant when people say things they do not mean.

This book examines disproportionality in education, focusing on issues of social justice for diverse and marginalized students. It addresses disproportionality as an indicator of biased practices and uses social justice as the frame for conceptualizing disproportionality historically and as a means to improve educational practice. Chapters explore the historical issue of disproportionality in education; outcomes experienced by racially and ethnically diverse students and students with disabilities, including discipline, bullying, and academic achievement; and ways in which social justice can inform policy and practice to make a positive impact reducing disproportionality in education. Key areas of coverage include: Methodological and statistical concerns in disproportionality research in education. Reviews research and data on disproportionality in education (e.g., disciplinary exclusion, bullying, seclusion and restraint, corporal punishment, school-based arrests, and academic achievement). Social justice as a theoretical and legal driver for change in policy and practice. Educational assessment and intervention practices designed to address disproportionality in education. Disproportionality and Social Justice in Education is a must-have resource for researchers, professors, and graduate students as well as clinicians, practitioners, and policymakers across such disciplines as clinical child and school psychology, educational psychology and teaching and teacher education, social work and counselling, pediatrics and school nursing, educational policy and politics, public health, and all interrelated disciplines.

In response to the growing concern for the psychological impact of disasters on children, this book integrates a diverse body of literature-including theory, case studies and other research, and assessment and intervention techniques-contributed by many of the fields most experienced professionals. Child and school psychologists, psychiatrists, nurses, mental health administrators, and pediatricians will all appreciate the work's unique focus on the reaction of children to extreme stress.

This book examines the implications of discrimination in Arab American youth with a focus on K-12 school systems. It begins with an introduction to Arab American youth and their experiences in the education system. The book follows with an overview regarding historical contributions of discrimination and the history of discrimination against Arabs in America, including the education system. It then presents relevant theoretical perspectives regarding discrimination and developmental processes. The book examines research specific to Arab American youth, identifies research limitations, and provides strategies on how to strengthen methodological approaches to better inform research, practice, and policy. It concludes by offering strategies for improving educational practice and policy and recommendations for interventions designed to enhance developmental health of Arab American youth in schools. Key areas of coverage include: Arab American youth, development, and discrimination in America. Discrimination in the K-12 educational system. Self-concept, ethnic identity, well-being and discrimination among Arab American youth. Arab American Youth is an essential resource for practitioners, researchers, educators, and related professionals as well as graduate students in school psychology, educational psychology, education, and related disciplines. ______________________________________________________________________Dr. Tabbah has written a book that is well overdue ... she provides a blueprint for moving forward in education as well as in policy development that can be transformative for Arab-American youth. Antoinette Miranda, Professor of School Psychology, The Ohio State University This book is a valuable contribution given the nascent literature on the experiences of Arab youth and the significant impact of discrimination on their schooling. Desiree Vega, Associate Professor of School Psychology, University of Arizona

Designed to provide practical information to those who are concerned with the development of young children, this book has three goals. First, the authors offer details about patterns of language development over the first three years of life. Although intensive studies have been carried out by examining from one to 20 children in the age range of zero to three years, there has been no longitudinal study of a sample as large as this--53 children--nor have as many measures of language development been obtained from the same children. Examining language development from a broad perspective in this size population allows us to see what generalizations can be made about patterns of language development.
This volume's second goal is to examine the impact of such factors as biology, cognition, and communication input--and the interaction of these factors--which traditionally have been held to play an important role in the course of language development. The comparative influence of each--and the interaction of all three--were examined statistically using children's scores on standard language tests at age three.
The volume's third goal is to provide information to beginning investigators, early childhood educators, and clinicians that can help them in their practice. This includes information about what appear to be good early predictors of language development at three years; language assessment procedures that can be used with children below age three, how these procedures can be used, what they tell us about the language development of young children; and what warning signs should probably be attended to, and which can most likely be ignored. In addition, suggestions are made about what patterns of communicative interaction during the different periods of development seem to be most successful in terms of language development outcomes at three years, and what overall indications the study offers regarding appropriate intervention.