From the research results and discussions presented in this book it becomes clear that a profound understanding of the various interrelationships of the nutritional aspects allows the implementation of specific management strategies to improve stability and productivity of forest ecosystems. In particular the effects of environmental changes as related to the impacts of air pollution, global change and land use on nutrient uptake and cycling processes in forest ecosystems are dealt with in detail. The book is divided into six main issues and each topic contains reviews as well as selected results of recent studies.

The book is a fundamental reference source on reaction wood for wood scientists and technologists, plant biologists, silviculturists, forest ecologists, and anyone involved in the growing of trees and the processing of wood. It brings together our current understanding of all aspects of reaction wood, and is the first book to discuss both compression wood and tension wood.

Trees produce reaction wood to maintain the vertical orientation of their stems and the optimum angle of each branch. They achieve this by laying down fibre cell walls in which differences in physical and chemical structure from those of normal fibres are expressed as differential stresses across the stem or branch. This process, while of obvious value for the survival of the tree, causes serious problems for the utilisation of timber. Timber derived from trees containing significant amounts of reaction wood is subject to dimensional instability on drying, causing twisting, bending and splitting. It is also difficult to work as timber, and for the pulp and paper industry the cost of removing the increased amount of lignin in compression wood is substantial. This has both practical and economic consequences for industry.

Understanding the factors controlling reaction wood formation and its effect on wood structure is therefore fundamental to our understanding of the adaptation of trees to their environment and to the sustainable use of wood.

The topics covered include:

-Morphology, anatomy and ultrastructure of reaction wood

-Cell-wall polymers in reaction wood and their biosynthesis

-Changes in tree proteomes during reaction wood formation

-The biomechanical action and biological functions of reaction wood

-Physical and mechanical properties of reaction wood from the scale of cell walls to planks

-The detection and characterisation of compression wood

-Effects of reaction wood on the performance of wood and wood-based products

-Commercial implications of reaction wood and the influence of forest management on its formation

"

Proceedings of a Round Table Seminar organized by the Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development Environment Research Programme, held in Metz, France, 21-23 May 1985.

The subject of fruit ripening is one of vital interest and importance to the massive international fruit growing and fruit trade industries. This book is the definitive handbook on the subject, bringing together a vast wealth of important information from an experienced team of international contributors.

Nematode interactions are important biological phenomena and of great significance in agriculture. It is a fascinating subject which is multidisciplinary by nature, and concerns any scientist involved with plant health. There have been marked advances in our knowledge of various aspects of the subject in the last two decades. This study area has been the subject of several reviews, but there was no exclusive text on the subject. This has stressed the need to document the information, developing a unifying theme which treated nematode interactions in a holistic manner. This book is about the inter action of plant-parasitic nematodes with other plant pathogens or root symbionts, the nature of their associations, their impact on the host and con sequential interactive effects on the involved organisms. Since nematodes are at the centre of the theme, the responsibility of understanding of other plant pathogens dealt with in this book is largely delegated to the reader. I have limited the book content to interactions with biotic pathogens and root symbionts only, for various reasons. The book embodies 16 chapters, and attempts to present balanced infor mation on various aspects of nematode interactions with other plant pathogens and root symbionts. Some chapters describe general aspects of the subject. Interactions of nematodes with specific groups of organisms are addressed in the remaining chapters."

The increasing con'.;ern for the serious problems of forest decline that occurred in the Northern Hemisphere in the late 1970's and early 1980 's led to an emphasis on the necessity of promoting and setting up investigations into the basic physiological mechanisms of forest trees. Since then, the concern about rapid changes has decreased along with the increase of monitored data on European forests health status. But tree physiology has faced new questions about changing climate and increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Advances in plant molecular biology and forest genetics have opened up new avenues in the research on forest tree physiology. At the same, time it has become evident that molecular and genetic tools give only a basis for further research on tree structure and function, which needs basic tree physiology again. On the other hand, the problems of forest decline in Europe are not over. They are no longer discussed daily in the media, but stress is an everyday phenomenon experienced by European forest trees. For instance, in southern Europe and mountainous regions, drought stress and many other abiotic or biotic factors are stressors and cause problems to forests with many important social and protective functions. Stress physiology is a branch of everyday physiology in traditional forestry. How to grow a forest with maximal carbon binding functions and optimal wood quality and rich in biodiversity."

Agroforestry reserach and development in Australia has been largely fragmented and many of the research results have never been published and are unknown. The purpose of this volume is to comprehensively review all of the research that has taken place in the field of agroforestry in Australia, including previously unpublished results, providing readers with the latest technical and economic information about using trees in agriculture for the control of salinity and erosion, for shelter and shade, and for the production of timber, fodder and minor forest products. The book provides information concerning planted trees within all of these categories and includes special review of the management of native vegetation on farms. These papers also examine research needs where appropriate. This book stems from the National Australian Conference on 'The Role of Trees in Sustainable Agriculture' which took place in Albury, Victoria, Australia in October, 1991. Each national review paper is based upon a summary of six or more state review research and development papers, prepared specifically for the national conference. The book thus provides readers with a comprehensive overview of agroforestry rsearch in Australia, which is introduced and summarised in the first chapter.

Nouragues is a tropical forest research station in French Guiana. It was established in 1986 for research on natural mechanisms of forest regeneration. Since then a lot of research has been done on this and related topics. This book provides an overview of the main research results, and focuses on plant communities, vertebrate communities and evolutionary ecology, frugivory and seed dispersal, and forest dynamics and recruitment. The appendices give (annoted) checklists of plants, birds, mammals, herpetofauna and fishes found in the same area.

This book addresses an important topic of food security in South Asia with specific reference to climate change. Of the 1 billion food insecure people in the world, more than 30% are in South Asia. The problem of food insecurity may be exacerbated by the projected climate change especially because of the water scarcity caused by rapid melting of the glaciers in the Himalayas and increase in variability in monsoonal rains and frequency of extreme events. Furthermore, large populations of Bangladesh and other coastal regions may be displaced by sea level rise. Thus, this volume addresses recommended land use and soil/water/crop/vegetation management practices which would enable land managers to adapt to climate disruption by enhancing soil/ecosystem/social resilience. In addition to biophysical factors, this book also addresses the issues related to human dimensions including social, ethnical and political considerations.

Since 1993 a major research programme, "Stochastic Decision Analysis in Forest Management" has been running at Department of Economics and Natural Resources, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (KVL), Copenhagen, in collaboration with Institute of Mathematical Statistics, University of Copenhagen (KU). The research is funded by the two Universities; The Danish Agricultural and Veterinary Research Council; The Danish Research Academy; The National Forest and Nature Agency; and Danish Informatics Network in the Agricultural Sciepces (DINA). A first international workshop in the research programme was held 5 - 8 August, 1996 at Eldrupgaard, Denmark, within the frameworkofacollaborationagreementbetween University of California at Berkeley (UCB) and the Danish Universities, and funded by The Danish Research Academy and the L0venholm Foundation. Having participated in the workshop, Professor Peter Berck (UCB) suggested that the papers be published along with selected papers in the same scientific field, i.e. mainly cointegration analysis of time series in forestry. The editors express their sincere appreciations to the many persons who have contributed to the realisation of the present book: participants in the research programme and the workshop, in particular Professors S0ren Johansen (KU) and Peter Berck (UCB); authors outside the programme/workshop; reviewers of the papers not previously published, in particuler Associate Professors Niels Haldrup (Aarhus University) and Henrik Hansen (KVL); and finally Mrs Mette Riis and Lizzie Rohde who did the tedious work of giving the papers a uniform style. Copenhagen, October 1998.

Today, problems such as deforestation, biodiversity loss and illegal logging have provoked various policy responses that are often referred to as forest and nature governance. In its broadest interpretation, governance is about the many ways in which public and private actors from the state, market and/or civil society govern public issues at multiple scales. This book takes a fresh perspective on the study of forest and nature governance. Departing from 'practice theory', and building upon scholars like Giddens, Bourdieu, Reckwitz, Schatzki and Callon, it seeks to move beyond established understandings of institutions, actors, and knowledge. In so doing, it not only presents an innovative conceptual and methodological framework for a practice based approach, but also rich case studies and ethnographies. Finally, this book is about how actors involved in governance talk about and work with trees, forests, biodiversity, wildlife, and so on, while acting upon forest policies, environmental discourses, codes of conduct, or scientific insights.

2. 2. Plant materials 2. 3. Pregrowth conditions 2. 4. Cryoprotectant treatment 2. 5. Freezing 2. 5. 1. Slow freezing 2. 5. 2. Rapid freezing 2. 5. 3. Droplet freezing 2. 6. Storage 2. 7. Thawing 2. 8. Viability testing 2. 9. Post-thaw regrowth 3. EXAMPLES OF CRYOPRESERVATION OF WOODY PLANT MATERIAL 4. POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF CRYOPRESERVATION IN TREE IMPROVEMENT 17. NURSERY HANDLING OF PROPAGULES - J. A. Driver, and 320 G. R. L. Suttle 1. INTRODUCTION 2. COMMERCIAL NURSERY NEEDS VS. LABORATORY PRACTICE 3. SEASONALITY OF GROWTH AND PRODUCTION CYCLES 4. MICROPROPAGATION OPTIONS 4. 1. Trends in commercial micropropagation 4. 1. 1. Contract micropropagation 5. FACTORS AFFECTING SURVIVAL AND GROWTH 5. 1. Hardening of propagules in vitro 5. 2. Greenhouse considerationS------ 5. 3. Field planting 5. 4. New approaches: Direct field rooting 5. 4. 1. Pretreatment in vitro 5. 4. 2. Root induction 5. 4. 3. Field placement 18. MYCORRHIZAE - R. K. Dixon, and D. H. Marx 336 1. INTRODUCTION 2. ROLE OF MYCORRHIZAE IN TREE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 3. PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION OF ECTOMYCORRHIZAL FUNGUS INOCULUM 3. 1. Bareroot stock 3. 2. Container-grown stock 4. FIELD TRIALS WITH ECTOMYCORRHIZAL PLANTING STOCK 5. PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION OF ENDOMYCORRHIZAL INOCULUM 6. FIELD TRIALS WITH ENDOMYCORRHIZAL 7. RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES 8. SUMMARY 351 19. TISSUE CULTURE APPLICATIUN TO FOREST PATHOLOGY AND PEST CONTROL - A. M. Diner, and D. F. Karnosky 1. INTRODUCTION 2. HOST AND PATHOGEN: CULTURE AND CHALLENGE 2. 1.

This book focuses on drylands such as arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas where they form the main part of ecosystems, e.g., in Iran, but also around the world. Mismanagement and improper exploitation of these areas lead to more degradation day by day. Besides an introduction to the role and importance of vegetation cover in conserving soil against wind and water erosion, this book gives a scope of appropriate techniques and methods for vegetation establishment and maintenance, indicators for suitable plants selection for soil conservation, and soil erosion prevention and combat. It provides methods of soil erosion prevention and combating through the application of plants, using bioengineering systems for soil erosion control and the role of agroforestry in soil erosion prevention. This book can be helpful to those with an interest in countries with similar climates to Iran. In particular, this includes Dubai, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.

This book brings out the most comprehensive and up-to-date information on the taxonomy, biodiversity, and ecology of climbers in India. Climbing is one of the principal plant growth habits that have long attracted the interests of ecologists and evolutionary biologists. Climbing plants can add significantly to the species richness of many tropical forests ecosystems, yet they receive relatively lesser attention than trees in ecological studies. The difficulties in taxonomic assertions and lack of standard methodologies overlook climbers in plant inventories, resulting in the underrepresentation of climbers in regional floras. There is a growing consensus about the increasing abundance of climbers and their multifaceted role in tropical forests worldwide. Therefore, it is essential to understand the taxonomic diversity and ecology of climbers at the regional scale to substantiate our efforts towards constructing a global climber database, which serves as a reference for fundamental research in climber ecology and evolution. This book is of interest to biodiversity researchers, taxonomists, ecologists, and evolutionary biologists. Field biologists, forest managers, and naturalists will also find this a useful read.

Since the first edition of our book "Tissue Culture in Fores try" in 1982 we have witnessed remarkable advances in cell and tissue culture technologies with woody perennials. In addition to forest biologists in government, industry, and universities, we now have molecular biologists, genetic engineers, and biochemists using cell and tissue cultures of woody species routinely. There fore, the time has come for an update of the earlier edition. In our present effort to cover new developments we have expanded to three volumes: 1. General principles and Biotechnology 2. Specific Principles and Methods: Growth and Development 3. Case Histories: Gymnosperms, Angiosperms and Palms The scientific barriers to progress in tree improvement are not so much lack of foreign gene expression in plants but our current inabili ty to regenerate plants in true-to-type fashion on a mas sive and economic scale. To achieve this in the form of an appro pr iate biotechnology, cell and tissue culture will increasing ly require a better understanding of basic principles in chemistry and physics that determine structural and functional relationships among molecules and macromolecules (proteins, RNA, DNA) within cells and tissues. These principles and their relationship with the culture medium and its physical environment, principles of clonal propagation, and genetic variation and ultrastructure are discussed in volume one."

Most forest tree species were considered recalcitrant a decade ago, but now with the improved in vitro techniques some progress has been made towards culture-of tree species. Micro propagation has been achieved from the juvenile tissues of a number of forest tree species. On the other hand, tissues from most mature trees are still very difficult to grow and differen tiate in vitro. Nevertheless, there has been slow but steady progress in the application of tissue culture technology for culture of tissues, organs, cells and protoplasts of tree species. As compared to most agricultural crops, and herbaceous plant species, trees are a different lot. They have long gene ration cycles. They are highly heterozygous and have a large reservoir of genetic variability. Because of this genetic variability, their response in vitro is also variable. On a single medium, the response of tissues from different trees (genotypes) of a single species may be quite different: some responding by induction of growth and differentiation, while others showing minimal or no growth at all. That makes the somatic cell genetics of woody plants somewhat difficult, but at the same time interesting."

Urban tree management is the key basis for greener cities of the future. It is a practical discipline which includes tree selection, planting, care and protection and the overall management of trees as a collective resource. Urban Tree Management aims to raise awareness for the positive impacts and benefits of city trees and for their importance to city dwellers. It describes their advantages and details their effects on quality of urban life and well-being aspects that are increasingly important in these times of progressing urbanisation. With this book you will learn: * fundamentals, methods and tools of urban tree management * state of the art in the fields of urban forestry and tree biology * positive effects and uses of urban trees * features, requirements and selection criteria for urban trees * conditions and problems of urban trees * governance and management aspects * environmental education programs. Edited by the leading expert Dr Andreas Roloff, Urban Tree Management is an excellent resource for plant scientists, horticulturists, dendrologists, arborists and arboriculturists, forestry scientists, city planners, parks department specialists and landscape architects. It will be an essential addition to all students and libraries where such subjects are taught.

The rapid progress on somatic embryogenesis and its prospects for potential application to improving woody plants prompted us to edit this book initially in three volumes, and now an additional three more volumes. We were all convinced that such a treatise was needed and would be extremely useful to researchers and students. This volume 6 is dedicated to Prof. Harry Waris, Helsinki, Finland, who did pioneer work on somatic embryogenesis during the time when Prof. Steward and others were actively engaged in this area. His former student Prof. Liisa Simols, University of Helsinki, Finland, has written a dedication Harry Waris, a pioneer in somatic embryogenesis' to her teacher Prof. Waris. This volume is divided into three sections and contains a total of 26 chapters. Section A comprises seven chapters covering topics such as: Historical insights into some contemporary problems in somatic embryogenesis (SE); Thin cell layer for somatic embryogenesis induction in woody trees; SE in tropical fruit and forest trees; SE in fruit and forest arid trees; Status of SE in Indian forest trees; SE research in fruit trees in India; Applications of SE for the improvement of tropical fruit trees. Section B comprises 15 chapters, dealing with: SE in oil palm, hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.), pistachio (Pistacia vera L.), Araucaria angustifolia, Quercus suber, Aspidosperma polyneuron, Acacia senegal, Simmondsia chiensis, Cupressus sempervirens, pecan (Carya illinoinensis), rattan (Calamus spp.), tamarillo (Cyphomandra betacea, longan (Dimocarpus longan Lor.), Aegle marmelos, and Euonymus europaeus. Section C comprises three chapters related to cryo-storage of citrus, conifers and rubber. All the chaptershave been peer-reviewed and revised accordingly to improve the quality of the chapters. We are thankful to all: (a) contributory authors for their co-operation in submitting manuscripts in time, and (b) reviewers for spending their valuable time in reviewing the manuscripts.

This book explores the degree to which landscapes have been enriched with palms by human activities and the importance of palms for the lives of people in the region today and historically. Palms are a prominent feature of many landscapes in Amazonia, and they are important culturally, economically, and for a variety of ecological roles they play. Humans have been reorganizing the biological furniture in the region since the first hunters and gatherers arrived over 20,000 years ago.

The idea for this book arose in 1993, after the Free State of Bavaria through its Bayrisches Staatsministerium rur Landesentwicklung und Umweltfragen (Bavarian Ministry of Regional Development and the Environment) decided to discontinue both the Bavarian project management (PBWU) for forest decline research and the multidisciplinary field research on the Wank Mountain in the Alps near Garmisch. Forest decline through the action of ozone and other photooxidants was a main topic of the supported re search in the Alps and will be a topic of new investigations in the Bavarian Forest. Many interesting results were obtained, but the researchers involved have not had sufficient time to allow reliable conclusions to be drawn. It was therefore decided to ask inter national experts for contributions in order to summarize the best available evidence of a possible link between ozone and forest decline - a topic which has been studied in the USA since the late 1950s and in Europe since the early 1980s. The original idea of Waldsterben as an irreversible large-scale dieback of forests in Germany was soon recognized to be wrong (Forschungsbeirat 1989). However, the new criteria used for the official German and European damage inventories (loss or yel lowing of needles or leaves, tree morphology) indicate that per sistently high percentages of damaged spruce and pine remain, and there is an increasing percentage of damaged beech and oak, with a high proportion of biotic disease (Forschungsbeirat 1989; UN-ECE 1995).

These proceedings fonn the outcome of an International Conference on "Impacts of Global change on Tree Physiology and Forest Ecosystems ", held from 26-29 November 1996, at Wageningen, The Netherlands. The conference brought together biologists, ecologists, and forest scientist working in the field of impacts of elevated CO and air pollution on tree physiology and forest ecosystems, and marked the 2 completion of a European COST action on "Impacts of Elevated C02 levels and Air Pollutants on Tree Physiology" (ICAT / COST-614), as well as the conclusion of the frrst phase of an EU-funded project entitled "Long-Term Effects of C02 and Climate Change on European Forests (LTEEF) ", that was carried out under the Environment and Climate Programme of the 4th Framework Programme (contract no's EV5V-CT94-0468 and PECOINIS-CT94-0112). The conference aimed to present an overview of current knowledge of effects of air pollution and climate change, at the biophysical, biochemical and physiological level of trees, against the background of climatic conditions and natural stresses. For the proceedings, we have asked the authors to provide an overview of their recent work, providing an entrance to a particular field of research rather than presenting unpublished material. The meeting took place at the International Agricultural Centre (lAC) with fmancial support provided by the COST-614 secretariat in Brussels. We like to thank mrs. A. van der Bunte of lAC for her support in organising the meeting, mr. A. J. H.

Forensic Forestry: A Guidebook for Foresters on the Witness Stand is a one-of-a-kind, hands-on resource for those forestry and land use professionals called upon to work on legal cases and testify in court. Land use and forestry issues in the United States, in particular-and likewise around the world-have become increasingly contentious, scrutinized, and debated. There is little to suggest that conflicts over forestlands will cease in the near future, in fact, quite the opposite. There are already a number of informative books available on land use and forestry, and related issues under the broader heading of environmental science. As such, while this book will not go into these concepts in detail, if someone is already an expert in land use and forestry, this book will tell them the ins and outs of the legal system and how they can best serve to make a case, using evidence, in a court of law. Coverage addresses the necessary background, and legwork involved, in providing technical expertise for such cases to be adjudicated. Since professionals' expertise is often focused on ecological issues, chapters look at the economic factors and how money, policy, and corporate interests come into play-the crux of where the professional forester's ability to present evidence and expertise becomes critical. The author provides an overall understanding of the courts, and the legal process. Coverage includes recommendations to professionals working on cases-and in the courtroom-in how to present evidence and testify in cases over land use and forestland rights, forestry management and safety, criminal and civil cases in liability in forest fires-among myriad others. Key Features: A book by a professional for professionals in the field of forestry and those called to testify in cases of forest and wildfires, eminent domain, land disputes, tort, and liability cases Written in easy-to-read, non-technical jargon to provide tools to best serve as an expert witness and consultant to support attorneys in civil and criminal cases Details unique, real-world cases study examples, detailing how they were adjudicated based on evidence and testimony provided Presents a legal background into the court system, courtroom procedure, the types of legal cases as they relate to forensic forestry As such, Forensic Forestry is a welcome addition to those professionals called upon to consult on, and testify in, such cases including land use professionals, foresters and forestry managers, ecologists, environmentalists, environmental policy advocates, and those in related fields.

If one were forced to use a single key word to describe the decade of the 1980's, a very prominent one would be "technology. " Leading the forefront of tech nology advancement were breakthroughs in electronics. Devices that were uncommon or unknown in 1980 became commonplace, and almost indispens able, by 1989. This trend has continued into the 1990's and it does not seem to be abating in any way. Microwave ovens, video recorders, telephone answer ing machines, compact disc players, computers, and a host of smaller or less sophisticated devices now appear in most households. The development of small and inexpensive computers, i. e., personal computers, has placed computing resources within reach of many more people. In addition, many traditional, and largely mechanical devices, have been enhanced by electronics. For example, specialized microprocessors are combined with arrays of electronic sensors to control and monitor sophisticated engineering components in most new auto mobiles. In this and many other ways, we are touched by the new electronics in almost every aspect of our daily lives. Initially, personal computers were little more than toys. They contained only a small fraction of the computing power of their immediate ancestors, the mini computers and mainframe computers. However, rapid improvements in integ rated circuit design and chip manufacture produced regular reductions in size and cost of computer components. During the same time, processor speed and sophistication increased."