This book provides the first comprehensive analysis of how aerosols form in the atmosphere through in situ processes as well as via transport from the surface (dust storms, seas spray, biogenic emissions, forest fires etc.). Such an analysis has been followed by the consideration of both observation data (various field observational experiments) and numerical modeling results to assess climate impacts of aerosols bearing in mind that these impacts are the most significant uncertainty in studying natural and anthropogenic causes of climate change.

Climate varies on all scales of time and space, bya large variety of reasons. However, before any discussion of reasons can be performed it is necessary to realize the very facts of climate variability by means of observations or reconstructions, respectively. In this book we focus on observed long-term trends of selected climate elements (tempera ture, precipitation, humidity, pressure ) as revealed by direct measurements of the Euro pean station network within the recent 100 years. Of course, there are a number of problems in detail: Reliability and accuracy of data, time series homogeneity, statistical confidence oftrends and so on. We hope that these problems are addressed in an instructive and, as far as possible, exhausting way. The main purpose of this work, however, was to provide a collection of trend charts which specify the regional particularities of observed climate trends in different months or seasons of the year leading us to an 'Atlas of observed climate trends in Europe'. Keeping in mind the recent World Meteorological Organization (WMO) climate nor mal (CLINO) period, we have also calculated the 1961-1990 trends."

This book gathers selected papers presented at the 8th International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics (ICEG), held on October 28 - November 1, 2018 in Hangzhou, China. The theme of the congress is "Towards a Sustainable Geoenvironment", which means meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Under this theme, the congress covers a broad range of topics and provides an excellent opportunity for academics, engineers, scientists, government officials, regulators, and planners to present, discuss and exchange notes on the latest advances and developments in the research and application of environmental geotechnics.

This book examines the meteorological phenomenon known as Western Disturbances (WDs) and traces their influence on the Indian subcontinent. It fully details the unique characteristics and dynamics of these disturbances, which produce large-scale instabilities in the atmosphere over northern India due to the orographic influence of the Himalayas. The authors first present a definition of the phenomenon and then go on to detail their structure and migration. Topics include dynamics, energetics and thermodynamics; modelling studies; land-use and land-cover interactions; and WDs in the changing climate. In addition, coverage outlines how WDs interact with and influence other weather systems throughout the four seasons of Indian climate: winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon. It places special emphasis on wintertime dynamics since WDs significantly contribute to the precipitation in India during this time. The authors explain why this period should be termed "Indian winter monsoon" and differentiate it from the northeast monsoon which so far is the prevalent term used in the region's meteorological parlance. Complete with detailed illustrations and case studies, this monograph will help researchers and students gain a fundamental understanding of these important storms. This knowledge is essential not only for short-term and seasonal hydrometeorological forecasting but also for the assessment of regional climate change and its impacts.

This crucial volume arose out of the success of the first workshop of the Cyprus Institute held in 2005. The proceedings present an overview of the implications of climate change for the eastern Mediterranean and the impact of climate change response on regional economic activity, particularly in the hydrocarbon industry. This book is aimed not just at scientists and researchers but should command a much wider audience, including policy makers and politicians.

The feasibility to extract porous medium parameters from acoustic recordings is investigated. The thesis gives an excellent discussion of our basic understanding of different wave modes, using a full-waveform and multi-component approach. Focus lies on the dependency on porosity and permeability where especially the latter is difficult to estimate. In this thesis, this sensitivity is shown for interface-wave and reflected-wave modes. For each of the pseudo-Rayleigh and pseudo-Stoneley interface waves unique estimates for permeability and porosity can be obtained when impedance and attenuation are combined.
The pseudo-Stoneley wave is most sensitive to permeability: both the impedance and the attenuation are controlled by the fluid flow. Also from reflected-wave modes unique estimates for permeability and porosity can be obtained when the reflection coefficients of different reflected modes are combined. In this case the sensitivity to permeability is caused by subsurface heterogeneities generating mesoscopic fluid flow at seismic frequencies. The results of this thesis suggest that estimation of in-situ permeability is feasible, provided detection is carried out with multi-component measurements. The results of this thesis argely affect geotechnical and reservoir engineering practices.

ALEXANDER GILLESPIE & WILLIAM C.G. BURNS The idea for this book grew out of the Ecopolitics conference in Canberra, Australia in 1996. The conference captured the ferment of the climate change debate in the South Pacific, as well as some its potential implications for the region's inhabitants and e- systems. At that conference, one of the editors (Gillespie) delivered a paper on climate change issues in the region, as did Ros Taplin and Mark Diesendorf, who are also c- tributors to this volume. This book focuses on climate change issues in Australia, New Zealand, and the small island nations in the Pacific as the world struggles to cope with possible the impacts of environmental change and to formulate effective responses. While Australia and New Zealand's per capita emissions of greenhouse gases are among the highest in the world, their aggregate contributions are small. However, both nations may exert a disprop- tionate influence in the global greenhouse debate because their obstinate positions at recent conferences of the parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on C- mate Change (FCCC) may provide justification for other developed nations, as well as developing countries, to refuse to make meaningful reductions in their greenhouse gas emissions.

The Handbook of Micrometeorology is the most up-to-date reference for micrometeorological issues and methods related to the eddy covariance technique for estimating mass and energy exchange between the terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere. It is intended to provide micrometeorologists, ecosystem scientists, boundary-layer meteorologists, and students involved in micrometeorology with the state of science on measurement and analysis.

EUROTRAC is the EUREKA environmental project studying the transport and chemical transformation of pollutants in the troposphere over Europe. At its inception in 1988 it had three aims: * to increase the basic understanding of atmospheric science; * to promote the technological development of sensitive, specific, fast-response instrumentation for environmental research and monitoring; and * to improve the scientific basis for taking future political decisions on environmental management within Europe. It was clear at an early stage, as the fourteen subprojects were formed and more than two hundred research groups in twenty-four countries were incorporated, that the first aim would readily be achieved. An ample demonstration that the early indications were correct is provided in the other volumes in this series which describe the scientific progress made. Substantial progress was also made towards achieving the second aim although some problems were encountered, mainly due to the high cost of the technological development required.

Triggered by a discussion on the nature of future electricity supplies, wind - ergy utilisation has boomed dramatically, ?rst in the United States of America and Denmark and later in Germany and Spain. Thanks to state subsidies, it has within 15 years overtaken the volume of the classic renewable hydro-power, and today it accountsforabout5%ofelectricitygeneration. Twofactorssetoffthisdevelopment: anawarenessofthelimitedavailabilityof fossilfuelsandtherecognitionthatinthe19thand20thcenturiesthemassiverelease of fossil CO had kicked off a gigantic climate experiment whose results remain 2 unpredictable. The discussion on the side effects of the wind energy boom, such asoccupationoflandandthechallengespresentedbyintegrationintoconventional electricity generation systems, frequently distract attention from the real goals and bene?ts of this technology. These are establishing an energy sector that will, in the shortterm, reduceCO emissionsandtheexploitationof?niteresourcesand, inthe 2 longterm, createanunlimitedsustainableenergysupply. Because fossil reserves are relatively easy to exploit, a system developed that could hardly be more convenient. It makes electric power available in large quan- tiesatmoderatepricesandinawaythatiseasytoplan.Thetaskofthepowerutility is essentially limited to "uncritically" adjusting the supply from central power s- tionstothedemandfromconsumers.Alow-CO sustainableenergysectordemands 2 differentstandards.Windandsolarpowerhaveahighpotential, buttheyaresubject tohighnatural?uctuationsand, ingeneral, areconnectedtotheelectricitygridina decentralway.Theshareoffuturestoragetechnologiessuchashydrogentechnology willbeassmallaspossibleforreasonsofef?ciencyandcost. So, future-compatibleelectricitygenerationwillcomprisemanydifferent, partly innovative components, which also demands a considerable research and devel- menteffort.Ontheonehand, thereisthe?uctuatinginputfromrenewablesources, and on the other, electricity consumption that must to a certain extent be adjusted to supply by means of intelligent solutions. In between, to a declining extent, VI Foreword modernconventionalenergyproducers, suchascoalandnaturalgaspowerstations, areallbroughttogetherwithagreatdealoftechnicalingenuityintheformofcontrol strategiesandinformation?ows

Since the discovery by J. E. Lovelock, R. J. Maggs and R. A. Rasmussen, in 1972, of its ubiquity in sea water, dimethyl sulphide (DMS) , a biologically produced sulphur compound, has been the subject of continuously increasing interest by the scientific community. DMS was immediately recognized as an important component of the biogeochemical sulphur cycle, and is now indicated as the second most important source of sulphur in the atmosphere, after anthropogenic so emission from fossil fuel combustion and 2 industry. DMS reacts rapidly in the atmosphere where it is oxidized to condensable acidic sulphur products; in fact, rainwater acidification, observed in remote areas, is attributed to DMS emissions. The hypothesis of a climatic role of DMS was made already in 1983 by B. Shaw, and by B. C. Nguyen, B. Bonsang and A. Gaudry. In 1987, a study appeared in Nature, in. which R. J. Charlson, J. E. Lovelock, M. O. Andreae and S. G. Warren suggested the possibility of a partial control of the climate by the biosphere through a chain of processes, linking production of DMS by marine phytoplankton with changes in clouds albedo. The publication of this paper triggered a strong debate and stimulated new efforts to describe the various aspects of the DMS cycle in the environment. The paper was timely and added to the discussion on the relative roles of atmospheric sulphur and greenhouse gases in the Earth's radiative budget.

Mechanics plays a fundamental role in aeolian processes and other environmental studies. This proposed book systematically presents the new progress in the research of aeolian processes, especially in the research on mechanism, theoretical modelling and computational simulation of aeolian processes from the viewpoint of mechanics. Nowadays, environmental and aeolian process related problems are attracting more and more attention. We hope this proposed book will provide scientists and graduate students in aeolian research and other environmental research some mechanical methods and principles and introduce aeolian related problems of environment to mathematical and mechanical scientists.

This symposium continues a long tradition for IUGGjIUTAM symposia going back to "Fundamental Problems in Thrbulence and their Relation to Geophysics" Marseille, 1961. The five topics that were emphasized were: turbulence modeling, statistics of small scales and coherent structures, con vective turbulence, stratified turbulence, and historical developments. The objective was to consider the ubiquitous nature of turbulence in a variety of geophysical problems and related flows. Some history of the contribu tions of NCAR and its alumni were discussed, including those of Jackson R Herring, who has been a central figure at NCAR since 1972. To the original topics we added rotation, which appeared in many places. This includes rotating stratified turbulence, rotating convective turbulence, horizontal rotation that appears in flows over terrain and the role of small scale vorticity in many flows. These complicated flows have recently begun to be simulated by several groups from around the world and this meeting provided them with an excellent forum for exchanging results, plus inter actions with those doing more fundamental work on rotating stratified and convective flows. New work on double diffusive convection was given in two presentations. The history of Large Eddy Simulations was presented and several new approaches to this field were given. This meeting also spawned some interesting interactions between observational side and how to inter pret the observations with modeling and simulations around the theme of particle dispersion in these flows."

This book is the seventh volume of the proceedings of the 4th GeoShanghai International Conference that was held on May 27 - 30, 2018. This volume, entitled "Geoenvironment and Geohazards", presents the recent advances and technology in geoenvironmental engineering and geohazards. The state-of-the-art theories, methodologies and findings in the related topics are included. This book may benefit researchers and scientists from the academic fields of soil & rock mechanics, geotechnical engineering, geoenvironmental engineering, transportation engineering, geology, mining and energy, as well as practical engineers from the industry. Each of the papers included in this book received at least two positive peer reviews. The editors would like to express their sincerest appreciation to all of the anonymous reviewers all over the world, for their diligent work.

The book is based on selected contributions presented at the (General) Session on the "Observation, Prediction and Verification of Precipitation" of the 2006 EGU General Assembly held in Vienna, Austria. It focuses on current advances in the field of precipitation measurement (i.e. instrumentation), estimation (i.e. remote sensing) and prediction (i.e. modeling). Following an introduction, which includes definitions and a summary on the history of measurement, estimation and prediction of precipitation, modern methods in the measurement, estimation and predication of precipitation are presented followed by the integration of the three themes for improved precipitation estimates and prediction as well as calibration and fine-tuning of methods. It describes advances in in-situ ground based instruments, in remote sensing methods of precipitation from space, ground and underwater observations and state of the art methods of precipitation nowcasting and forecasting, along with verification.

This book about lightning summarizes the essence of physics and effects of lightning in a non-technical manner and provides an up-to-date description of the phenomenon of lightning in simple language. Starting with the myths related to lightning, the reader is introduced to the mechanism of lightning flashes and their interactions with humans, human-made systems and Earth's environment. Most of the available books on lightning are written for the experts in the field and there is a need for a book that introduces the undergraduate and beginning post graduate students to the subject of lightning and prepares them for more advanced books meant for the experts. This introductory book, which is based on a series of lectures given to undergraduate and postgraduate students in electrical engineering, is intended to fill this need. Tailored to the needs of university students who plan to study electrical engineering, meteorology, environmental or basic physics, it is also a valuable reference resource for laymen who are interested in knowing more on this phenomenon.

The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water both in area and volume. Its drainage area is approximately 3. 5 million square kilometers, extending 2500 km in length, 35 DegreesN to 600N, and on average 1000 km wide, 400E 0 to 60E (Fig. 1). Located in a large continental depression about 27 m below sea level and with no surface outlets, the Caspian Sea is particularly sensitive to climatic variations. As with other closed-basin lakes, its level depends on the balance between precipitation and evaporation, which is directly linked to atmospheric circulation. Because of its large area and volume of water, the Caspian Sea effectively. filters climatic noise, and as such may serve as a good indicator of climatic changes through observed changes in its water level. Recently, the Caspian Sea has come under increased attention from physical and social scientists owing to its unique natural characteristics as well as the' very important role it plays in the ecoriomil:!s of such countries as Azerbaijan" Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Iran. Dissolution of the Soviet Union and creation of new independent states resulted in difficult negotiations to divide the wealth of the Caspian Sea and to establish new economic zones. According to one assessment (Ratkovich, 1988), the Caspian Sea basin accounted for about one-third of the total economic output, one-fifth of the agricultural production, and one-third of the hydroelectric production of the former Soviet Union.

Solar radiation data is important for a wide range of applications, e.g. in engineering, agriculture, health sector, and in many fields of the natural sciences. A few examples showing the diversity of applications may include: architecture and building design e.g. air conditioning and cooling systems; solar heating system design and use; solar power generation; weather and climate prediction models; evaporation and irrigation; calculation of water requirements for crops; monitoring plant growth and disease control; skin cancer research.

Solar radiation data must be provided in a variety of forms to suit these applications. The radiation reaching the upper atmosphere of the Earth is a quantity rather constant in time. But the radiation reaching some point on Earth surface is random in nature. The main cause is the fact that various gases within the atmosphere absorb solar radiation at different wavelengths, and clouds and dust also affect it.

There are two ways to obtaining solar radiation data at ground level: by measurement and by modelling. The book will facilitate the calculation of solar radiation required by engineers, designers and scientists and, as a result, will increase the access to needed solar radiation data.

This book provides a unique, in-depth view of past, present and potential future climatic change in mountain regions, and in particular on the mechanisms which are responsible for this change. Other books which focus on environmental change in mountains focus more generally on the impacts of this change on mountain systems, rather than on the regional features of climatic change itself. The book enters into a high level of detail concerning results of international investigations which involve specialists from numerous climate-related disciplines. The book can be used in an academic and research context, for advanced graduate and doctoral students, as well as researchers working in various domains of relevance to climatic change issues. The book also has relevance in the context of future activities of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in terms of providing up-to-date knowledge of fundamental mechanisms and consequences of climatic change in mountain regions.

While I was participating in the IUTAM Symposium on Structure of Turbulence and Drag Reduction in Zurich, Switzerland, in 1989, I was approached by Prof. Dr. Themistocles Dracos to give a course oflectures on the Atmospheric Boundary Layer during my sabbatical leave at Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich - Hoenggerberg in 1991. His reason for the suggestion was the growing interest in the environment and its dynamics created by flow in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer. I have been teaching boundary layer to undergraduate and graduate students for more than twenty five years, so I agreed to give a series of lectures on boundary layer of the atmosphere. From the start I thought very seriously about the problem and consulted all the published works in English on the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL). First consider the topography of the Earth which has oceans calm and turbulent, mountain ranges of height up to 9 km, lands of variable height with forests, food growing vegetable and deserts. The shape of the Earth is nearly spherical except at the north and south poles. Sun supplies the energy to drive circulation of air around the Earth's atmosphere which for all practical purposes occupies the region up to about 10 to 11 km. This brief scenerio of Earth's topography reveals the complexity of flow very close to the Earth's surface that is hardly flat except at the oceans' surface which consists of about 70% of the total Earth's surface.

Engineers are always interested in the worst-case scenario. One of the most important and challenging missions of structural engineers may be to narrow the range of unexpected incidents in building structural design. Redundancy, robustness and resilience play an important role in such circumstances. "Improving the Earthquake Resilience of Buildings: The worst case approach" discusses the importance of worst-scenario approach for improved earthquake resilience of buildings and nuclear reactor facilities.

"Improving the Earthquake Resilience of Buildings: The worst case approach" consists of two parts. The first part deals with the characterization and modeling of worst or critical ground motions on inelastic structures and the related worst-case scenario in the structural design of ordinary simple building structures. The second part of the book focuses on investigating the worst-case scenario for passively controlled and base-isolated buildings. This allows for detailed consideration of a range of topics including:

A consideration of damage of building structures in the critical excitation method for improved building-earthquake resilience,

A consideration of uncertainties of structural parameters in structural control and base-isolation for improved building-earthquake resilience, and

New insights in structural design of super high-rise buildings under long-period ground motions.

"Improving the Earthquake Resilience of Buildings: The worst case approach" is a valuable resource for researchers and engineers interested in learning and applying the worst-case scenario approach in the seismic-resistant design for more resilient structures.

Climate variability has major impacts in many parts of the world, including Australia. Developments in understanding of the El Nino - Southern Oscillation Phenomenon have introduced some skill in seasonal to inter-annual climate forecasting. Can this skill be harnessed to advantage? Or do we just continue to observe these impacts? How does a decision-maker managing an agricultural or natural ecosystem modify decisions in response to a skillful, but imprecise, seasonal climate forecast? Using Australian experience as a basis, this book focuses on these questions in pursuing means to better manage climate risks. The state of the science in climate forecasting is reviewed before considering detailed examples of applications to: farm scale agricultural decisions (such as management of cropping and grazing systems); regional and national scale agricultural decisions (such as commodity trading and government policy); and natural systems (such as water resources, pests and diseases, and natural fauna). Many of the examples highlight the participatory and inter-disciplinary approach required among decision-makers, resource systems scientists/analysts, and climate scientists to bring about the effective applications. The experiences discussed provide valuable insights beyond the geographical and disciplinary focus of this book. The book is ideally suited to professionals and postgraduate students in ecology, agricultural climatology, environmental planning, and climate science."