Biodiversity of Fungi is essential for anyone collecting and/or monitoring any fungi. Fascinating and beautiful, fungi are vital components of nearly all ecosystems and impact human health and our economy in a myriad of ways. Standardized methods for documenting diversity and distribution have been lacking. A wealth of information, especially regrading sampling protocols, compiled by an international team of fungal biologists, make Biodiversity of Fungi an incredible and fundamental resource for the study of organismal biodiversity.
Chapters cover everything from what is a fungus, to maintaining and organizing a permanent study collection with associated databases; from protocols for sampling slime molds to insect associated fungi; from fungi growing on and in animals and plants to mushrooms and truffles. The chapters are arranged both ecologically and by sampling method rather than by taxonomic group for ease of use. The information presented here is intended for everyone interested in fungi, anyone who needs tools to study them in nature including naturalists, land managers, ecologists, mycologists, and even citizen scientists and sophiscated amateurs.
Covers all groups of fungi - from molds to mushrooms, even slime molds
Describes sampling protocols for many groups of fungi
Arranged by sampling method and ecology to coincide with users needs
Beautifully illustrated to document the range of fungi treated and techniques discussed
Natural history data are provided for each group of fungi to enable users to modify suggested protocols to meet their needs

Fungi are sessile, highly sensitive organisms that actively compete for environmental resources both above and below the ground. They assess their surroundings, estimate how much energy they need for particular goals, and then realise the optimum variant. They take measures to control certain environmental resources. They perceive themselves and can distinguish between 'self' and 'non-self'. They process and evaluate information and then modify their behaviour accordingly. These highly diverse competences show us that this is possible owing to sign(aling)-mediated communication processes within fungal cells (intraorganismic), between the same, related and different fungal species (interorganismic), and between fungi and non-fungal organisms (transorganismic). Intraorganismic communication involves sign-mediated interactions within cells (intracellular) and between cells (intercellular). This is crucial in coordinating growth and development, shape and dynamics. Such communication must function both on the local level and between widely separated mycelium parts. This allows fungi to coordinate appropriate response behaviors in a differentiated manner to their current developmental status and physiological influences.

Volume 3 covers recent research with expanded coverage on this important area of remediation. Mycoremediation is the form of bioremediation in which fungi-based technology is used to decontaminate the environment. Fungi are among the primary saprotrophic organisms in an ecosystem, as they are efficient in the decomposition of organic matter. Wood-decay fungi, especially white rot, secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose. Fungi have been proven to be a very cost-effective and environmentally-friendly way for helping to remove a wide array of toxins from damaged environments or wastewater. These toxins include heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning industry chemicals and wastewater, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicides, in land, fresh water and marine environments. Bioremediation of toxic organics by fungi is the most sustainable and green route for cleanup of contaminated sites and we discuss the multiple modes employed by fungi for detoxification of different toxic and recalcitrant compounds including prominent fungal enzymes viz., catalases, general lipase, laccases, peroxidases and sometimes intracellular enzymes, especially the cyrochrome P450 monooxygeneses. Fungi play an important role in the biogeochemical cycling of manganese and other redox-active metals, which is related to their ability to survive radiation and other oxidative challenges. This book covers recent research with more detail on the various types of fungi and associated fungal processes used to clean up wastes and wastewaters in contaminated environments, and discusses their potential for environmental applications.

P. Doherty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VB Introduction D. Dobbelaere and D. McKeever. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX Theileria Development and Host Cell Invasion Michael K. Shaw. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Genomic Polymorphism, Sexual Recombination and Molecular Epidemiology af Theileria Parva R. Bishop, D. Geysen, R. Skilton, D. Odongo, V. Nene, B. Allsopp, S. Mbogo, P. Spooner and S. Morzaria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Epidemiological Significance of Strain-Specific Immunity to Theileria Parva D. J. McKeever and W. I. Morrison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Virulence and Attenuation in Theileria Annulata R. Adamson and R. Hall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Theileria Survival Strategies and Host Cell Transformation V. T. Heussler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Genomics of Theileria Parva V. Nene, R. Bishop, J. Quackenbush, M. Pertea, S. L. Salzberg, E. Taracha, S. Morzaria, C. M. Fraser and M. Gardner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Non-Transforming Theileria Parasites of Ruminants C. Sugimoto and K. Fujisaki 93 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 FOREWORD The apicomplexan protozoal parasites continue to provide major challenges for human and animal health. While most of us have some familiarity with the ravages of malaria, there is relatively little awareness of diseases caused by parasites of the Theileria species. The reason is that these tick-borne organisms are problematic only in cattle and small ruminants. This does not mean, however, that the various manifestations of Theileriosis are of little interest to those concerned principally with human health. The economic loss and diminished food production associated with East Coast Fever (ECF, caused by T. parva) continues to be a major problem in East Africa.

Over the last decades, scientists have been intrigued by the fascinating organisms that inhabit extreme environments. These organisms, known as extremophiles, thrive in habitats which for other terrestrial life-forms are intolerably hostile or even lethal. Based on such technological advances, the study of extremophiles has provided, over the last few years, ground-breaking discoveries that challenge the paradigms of modern biology. In the new bioeconomy, fungi in general, play a very important role in addressing major global challenges, being instrumental for improved resource efficiency, making renewable substitutes for products from fossil resources, upgrading waste streams to valuable food and feed ingredients, counteracting life-style diseases and antibiotic resistance through strengthening the gut biota, making crop plants more robust to survive climate change conditions, and functioning as host organisms for production of new biological drugs. This range of new uses of fungi all stand on the shoulders of the efforts of mycologists over generations. The book is organized in five parts: (I) Biodiversity, Ecology, Genetics and Physiology of Extremophilic Fungi, (II) Biosynthesis of Novel Biomolecules and Extremozymes (III) Bioenergy and Biofuel synthesis, and (IV) Wastewater and biosolids treatment, and (V) Bioremediation.

Invasive fungal infections are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Over the past decade there has been a concerted effort to develop reliable methods for the detection of such infections. In Fungal Diagnostics: Methods and Protocols, expert researchers in the field detail the introduction of new technology into a diagnostic setting include ease of use, and rapid turnaround time without compromising sensitivity and specificity. Focusing specifically on fungal detection in clinical settings, fungal diagnostics including, environmental testing, agriculture and food production and veterinary diagnostics. Written in the highly successful Methods in Molecular Biology (TM) series format, chapters include introductions to their respective topics, lists of the necessary materials and reagents, step-by-step, readily reproducible laboratory protocols, and key tips on troubleshooting and avoiding known pitfalls. Authoritative and practical, Fungal Diagnostics: Methods and Protocols seeks to aid scientists into the further study of diagnostic and detection of fungi.

This volume of Applied Mycology and Biotechnology completes the set of two volumes dedicated to the coverage of recent developments on the theme "Agriculture and Food Production." The first volume provided overview on fungal physiology, metabolism, genetics and biotechnology and highlighted their connection with particular applications to food production. The second volume examines various specific applications of mycology and fungal biotechnology to food production and processing. In the second volume coverage on two remaining areas of the theme, food crop production and applications in the foods and beverages sector, is presented.
The interdisciplinary and complex nature of the subject area, combined with the need to consider the sustainability of agri-food practices, its economics and industrial perspectives, requires a certain focus and selectivity of subjects. In this context the recent literature contained in this work will help readers arrive at comprehensive, in depth information on the role of fungi in agricultural food and feed technology.
As a professional reference this book is targeted towards agri-food producer research establishments, government and academic units. Teachers and students, both in undergraduate and graduate studies, in departments of food science, food technology, food engineering, microbiology, applied molecular genetics and biotechnology will also find this work useful.

The purpose of this volume is to highlight wide-ranging applications of genomics in the area of applied mycology and biotechnology.
The volume covers: a brief overview on fungal genomics; meiotic recombination in fungi; molecular genetics of circadian rhythms; genome sequencing; transposable elements; mitochondrial genomes; ribosome biogenesis; pathogenicity genes; genetic improvement of yeasts; microarrays: techniques and applications; fungal germplasm and data bases. Although it is difficult to develop a comprehensive volume on fungal genomics because of the range and complexity of the emerging knowledge, an attempt has been made to bring together pertinent information that will serve the needs of the reader, provide a quick reference to material that might otherwise be difficult to locate, and furnish a starting point for further study.

"Laboratory Protocols in Fungal Biology" presents the latest techniques in fungal biology. This book analyzes information derived through real experiments, and focuses on cutting edge techniques in the field. The book comprises 57 chapters contributed from internationally recognised scientists and researchers. Experts in the field have provided up-to-date protocols covering a range of frequently used methods in fungal biology. Almost all important methods available in the area of fungal biology viz. taxonomic keys in fungi; histopathological and microscopy techniques; proteomics methods; genomics methods; industrial applications and related techniques; and bioinformatics tools in fungi are covered and complied in one book. Chapters include introductions to their respective topics, list of the necessary materials and reagents, step-by-step, readily reproducible laboratory protocols, and notes on troubleshooting. Each chapter is self-contained and written in a style that enables the reader to progress from elementary concepts to advanced research techniques. "Laboratory Protocols in Fungal Biology" is a valuable tool for both beginner research workers and experienced professionals.

Coming Soon in the "Fungal Biology" series:

Goyal, Manoharachary / "Future Challenges in Crop Protection Against Fungal Pathogens"

Martin, Garcia-Estrada, Zeilinger / "Biosynthesis and Molecular Genetics of Fungal Secondary Metabolites"

Zeilinger, Martin, Garcia-Estrada / "Biosynthesis and Molecular Genetics of Fungal Secondary Metabolites, Volume 2"

van den Berg, Maruthachalam / "Genetic Transformation Systems in Fungi"

Schmoll, Dattenbock / "Gene Expression Systems in Fungi"

Dahms / "Advanced Microscopy in Mycology ""

The Sirex woodwasp, Sirex noctilio, is the most important invasive alien insect pest of Pinus plantations in the Southern Hemisphere. It now also threatens pines in North America. This book brings together the worldwide knowledge of researchers from Universities and Government institutions, as well as forest industry practitioners that have worked on the pest. Importantly, it is the first comprehensive treatment of the subject since S. noctilio was discovered outside its native range around 1900. The book covers all aspects of the biology and management of S. noctilio, including aspects of the insects' taxonomy, general life history, host-plant relationships, population dynamics, chemical ecology and symbiosis with the fungus Amylostereum areolatum. The book also contains a comprehensive synthesis of the history and current status of the pest and worldwide efforts to control it, including biological control, silviculture and quarantine.

This new edition offers detailed overviews covering a wide area of fungal growth and reproduction on the mechanistic and molecular level. It includes 18 chapters by eminent scientists in the field and is - like the previous edition - divided into the three sections: Vegetative Processes and Growth, Signals in Growth and Development, and Reproductive Processes. Major topics of the first section include dynamic intracellular processes, apical growth, hyphal fusion, and aging. The second section analyses autoregulatory signals, pheromone action, and photomorphogenesis and gravitropism abiotic signals. The third section reveals details of asexual and sexual development in various fungal model systems, culminating in fruit body formation in basidiomycetes, which is a sector of growing economic potential. Since the publication of the first edition of this volume in 1994 and the second edition in 2006, the field of fungal biology has continued to expand thanks to improvements in omics technologies and the application of genetic tools to an increasing variety of fungal models. Several additional chapters by a new generation of fungal biologists discuss this diversity and guarantee lively reading.

The fungi have been major players in the molecular revolution that has transformed biology. Because they can be manipulated as microorganisms, yeast and Neurospora provide information that is difficult to acquire with plants and animals, and experimental findings with fungi often throw light on corresponding processes in plants and animals. The filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa has become a valuable model organism because of its favorable features for genetic analysis and because of the vast store of information that has been acquired during 75 years of research. This compendium provides researchers and students with a concise account of current knowledge about the genes and genome of Neurospora, setting the stage for research that will follow completion of the genome sequence.
This book, which is fully documented and abundantly illustrated, will be an indispensable tool in any laboratory that uses fungi for research in molecular genetics, classical genetics, developmental genetics, or cell biology.
Key Features
* Molecular, genetic, and phenotypic information for over 1000 nuclear genes
* Genetic maps.
* Linkage group assignments for 1000 loci
* 2300 references, 68 figures
* Guide to electronic and other sources of information
* Summary information on the mitochondrial genome
* cDNAs identified from different stages of life
* Classical, cytogenetic, and molecular data, anticipating completion of the genome sequence

The fundamental problem the world faces today, is the rapidly increasing pressure of population on the limited resources of the land. To meet the ever increasing demands of expanding populations, agricultural production has been raised through the abundant use of inorganic fertilizers, the adoption of multicropping systems and liberal application of chemical pesticides (fungicides, bactericides, etc. ). Though the use of chemicals has increased the yield dramatically, it has also resulted in the rapid deterioration of land and water resources apart from wastage of scarce resources. This has adversely affected the biological balance and lead to the presence of toxic residues in food, soil and water in addition to imposing economic constraints on developing countries.' (From the Preface) Mycorrhizal Biology addresses the global problem of land degradation and the associated loss of soil productivity and decline in soil quality caused by exploitative farming practices and poor management in developing countries, and the far reaching socio-economic and ecological consequences of its impact on agricultural productivity and the environment. In the light of a need for sustainable development, a new system of productive agriculture, to ensure the efficient management of agricultural inputs for long term high crop productivity with minimum damage to the ecological and socio-economic environment is essential. The management of mycorrhizal fungi will form a significant part of such a system and this work investigates the key association of plant roots with mycorrhizal fungi, known to benefit plants under conditions of nutritional and water stress and pathogen challenge and analyses thedevelopments in our understanding of the genetic loci that govern mycorrhiza formation.

This new book shows the work done by researchers dedicated to the study of different mycorrhizas types, the fungal species associated and their distribution influenced by geographical and environmental factors among the different South American biogeographic regions. The exclusive biotic and abiotic characteristics delimit natural ecosystems with uniques biological communities, where mycorrhizologists have investigated plant symbioses in those ecosystems for decades, providing data from Venezuelan Great Savannah, Andes, Puna, Chaco, Caatinga, Monte, Atlantic Forest, Marginal Forest, Cerrado, Patagonia, Yungas, Rainforest, Andean-Patagonian Forests, and Antarctic section. In these environments, different mycorrhizal associations (arbuscular / ericoid / orchidoid / ectomycorrhizal / mycoheterotrophic) are present in herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees. Mycorrhizal associations were studied from different researching points of view (biodiversity, biological invasions, biotic / abiotic disturbances, altitudinal variations, seasonal changes, land uses). The aim of this Book is to compile research on mycorrhizal fungi and their associations in environments of South America, throughout the synthesis of information from natural and anthropogenic related environments. The book focuses in different bioregions of South America from tropical areas to the southern cone, and it will be useful to those who work on plant-fungal interactions in different vegetation types and in agricultural lands from South America and worldwide.

Developments of antifungal agents have declined as compared to other antibiotics that have displayed a potent development with time. There is an urgent need for both prophylactic and therapeutic treatments worldwide to control the severity of infections caused by Candida. Anticandidal Therapeutics provides the readers with a compiled knowledge of the fungal human infection Candida and the development of anticandidal drugs. Anticandidal Therapeutics helps researchers form the basis for the discovery and development of novel anticandidal therapies. In 14 chapters this book provides collective information on anticandidal agents and their discovery and development with respect to major drug transporter families, different stages of anticandidal agent development, recent trends and progress in antifungal translational research, clinical studies status of anticandidal therapeutic agents, and drug repurposing for development of novel anticandidal agents.

The available literature on freshwater fungi is limited. Over the subsequent years a considerable volume of scientific papers have appeared scattered throughout numerous journals. There is therefore no recent synthesis of the subject and this is the objective of the proposed book. Freshwater habitats are rich in fungi with some 3,000 described species, most of papers focussing on their identification, substrata they grow on and world distribution. However, these fungi play an important role in the freshwater ecosystem, and are primarily involved in the breakdown of leaf litter contributing food for detritus feeders. Our book will bring together a wide range of acclaimed mycologists to review recent developments on the biology and ecology of freshwater fungi, particularly their molecular phylogeny, biodiversity, causative diseases of freshwater amphibians, fishes and invertebrate animals, decomposition of leaf litter, stream pollution and their potential role in bioremediation.

In recent years, the development of new molecular biology tools and the elucidation of whole genome sequences have revolutionized research on pathogenic fungi. Such advances have led to the development of faster, more reliable, diagnostic techniques for medically important pathogens such as Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Cryptococcus neoformans. In addition, they have led to a major breakthrough in the approach for the generation of novel anti-fungal agents. Now it is possible to search for agents that target essential genes. Research in this area has never been more exciting. In this book, a panel of expert international mycologists critically review the most important cutting-edge topics. Chapters are written from a molecular and genomic perspective, and through the provision of extensive reference sections positively encourage readers to pursue the subject in greater detail. Topics include: gene expression and regulation, heterozygosity in Candida, molecular diagnosis

Several different transformation techniques have been developed over the years and readily shown to be decisive methods in fungal biotechnology. This book will cover the basics behind the most commonly used transformation methods, as well as associated tools and techniques. Each chapter will provide protocols along with examples used in laboratories worldwide. Not only will this text provide a detailed background on applications in industrial and pharmaceutical relevant microbes, but also the importance of fungal pathogens in agricultural production (Phytophthora and Botrytis) and mammalian infection (Penicillium marneffei and Candida). Genetic Transformation Systems in Fungi, Volume 1 provides in-depth coverage of how the transformation of DNA is used to understand the genetic basis behind these fungal traits.

This book compiles the latest research in the area of Trichoderma Rhizosphere Biology. It covers topics such as microbial interaction, crosstalk between plants and microbes, interactions with abiotic and biotic factors, and advances in biocontrol agents, biofertilizers and biostimulants. The respective chapters describe innovative ways of adapting fungal communities to improve their survival in highly dynamic environments and agroecosystems. In closing, the book discusses the use of Trichoderma as a bio-growth enhancer and biostimulant for organic agriculture.

Mycorrhiza will be the focus of research and study for the coming decade. Successful survival and maintenance of plant cover is mostly dependent on mycorrhization. During the last decade about ten books have appeared on various aspects of mycorrhiza, including two on methodology. The present book has been compiled to give a complete and comprehensive description of the topic to the students and researchers in botany, applied mycology, biotechnology, forestry and agriculture. The book will also be useful to planners dealing with biofertilizers and forestation. Besides topics of academic interest, the volume includes several aspects which are unique and are written about for the first time, e.g.: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal symbiosis - recognition and specificity; Mycorrhizal Integration and cellular compatibility between Endomycorrhizal symbionts; Cost - economics of existing methodology for inoculum production of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; Mycorrhiza: Ecological Implications of Plant interactions; Outplanting performance of mycorrhizal inoculated seedlings; Fluorescence microscopy in mycorrhiza studies and Ectomycorrhizal fungi as experimental organism. Other aspects not mentioned above include most recent reviews concerning vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza and ectomycorrhizae. The different review chapters have been written by world authorities in their respective specialisations giving more up to date information than is provided anywhere else. This book deals with all major aspects of mycorrhiza, giving structure, ultrastructure, ecology and applications in agriculture and forestry.

This reference book includes 24 chapters written by a group of experts in the different fields of microfungi and cover a broad range of topics on microfungi. It provides the most updated information on the latest development in systematics and taxonomy of microfungi, new techniques which were developed in the last ten years and their application in microfungal research. After the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) was adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011, it has had a profound impact on mycology and its research. Fungal nomenclature changes and its significance to fungal taxonomy and naming of microfungi in the future is discussed in detail. Since dual names system for fungi developing both sexual and asexual states, and fungi developing only asexual state is no longer available, the first five chapters will clarify some confusion and provides perspective views on the direction for future research. The next nine chapters cover microfungi and their ecological roles or functions in the different habitats (air, indoor, aquatic, marine, plants, soils, etc). The remaining 13 chapters cover the relationship of microfungi and humans (good and bad) and usage or application microfungi in different industries, such as food, agriculture, forestry, green technology, pharmaceutics, and medicine, as well as in our daily life. The book bridges the gap between basic mycological research and applied mycology and provide readers a unique set of information and knowledge of microfungi generated from multiple angles in different fields of mycology.

This book focuses on the taxonomic diversity of the genus Tuber as economically important truffles. In contributions by internationally respected scientists, it examines truffle systematics, interactions with abiotic and biotic environments, strategies for spore dispersal, and molecular processes in truffles. Topics discussed include: evolutionary theories and phylogeny of Tuber species from Asia, Europe and North-America; the influence of climate on the natural distribution of Tuber species and fruiting body production, soil characteristics and vegetation in natural habitats; tools for tracing truffles in soil, host diversity, truffle inhabiting fungi and truffle-associated bacteria; and the relationships of small mammals and wild boars with truffles, as well as the smell of truffles.This book offers a valuable reference guide for all researchers working in the fields of mycology, ecology and the soil sciences, and will also be useful for farmers and foresters interested in truffle cultivation worldwide.

The aim of this volume is to describe the latest advances in microscopic methods, including integrated techniques, as applied to mycology. Each chapter will provide a brief overview of a particular microscopic method with associated advantages and limitations, the research questions that can be appropriately addressed using these microscopic methods, how it has been successfully applied to address mycological research questions, including supporting and complimentary techniques, and which future questions can be addressed.

It is now known that over 90 percent of all plants have established integrative plant-fungal processes in their root systems, and it may well turn out to be the case that virtually all plants have mycorrhizae. In this work, many of the best researchers in the field review the current status of research in plant-fungal communications, mycorrhizal organisms, applications, and biotechnology. The focus is a hierarchical one. This volume is comprehensive and covers both ectomycorrhizae and vesicular-arbuscular (VA) mycorrhizae, addressing concepts that are related to all the different groups. Mycorrhizal Functioning will be of interest to professionals and graduate students in microbiology, ecology, mycology, plant pathology, plant science, and soil science. Those working in the agricultural biotechnology industry will also benefit from the book's applications perspective.