The Imperiled Presidency: Presidential Leadership in the 21st Century calls for a dramatic re-evaluation of the American president's role within the separation of powers system. In contrast with claims by academics, pundits, media, and members of Congress, this provocative new book argues that the contemporary American presidency is too weak rather than too strong. Cal Mackenzie offers the contrarian argument that the real constitutional crisis in contemporary American politics is not the centralization and accumulation of power in the presidency, but rather that effective governance is imperiled by the diminished role of the presidency. The product of more than three years of research and writing and nearly four decades of the author's teaching and writing about the American presidency, The Imperiled Presidency is the first book-length treatment of the weaknesses of the modern presidency, written to be accessible to undergraduates and interested citizens alike. It engages with a wide range of literature that relates to the presidency, including electoral politics, budgetary politics, administrative appointments, and the conduct of foreign affairs. It would be a useful complement to courses that rely primarily on a single textbook, as well as courses that are built around more specific readings from a range of books and articles.

Little is known about those at the command end of policing in Europe. Over the last two years, Bryn Caless and Steve Tong have had unique access to those at the top of Europe's police forces, obtaining detailed comments from more than a hundred strategic police leaders in 22 countries and presenting, for the first time, information about how they are selected for high office, how they are held to account and what their views are on current and future challenges in policing. Building on research conducted in the UK, this is a timely and unparalleled insight into a little-known elite in the law-enforcement world.

This interdisciplinary study provides an original account of the US-led wars in Afghanistan and Iraq to show how, why and with what consequences, twenty-first century wars became seen as policing wars.
Holmqvist starts from the assumption that wars always reflect the societies that wage them and combines the analysis of western strategic thinking with a philosophical examination of the core ideas that structure the contemporary liberal imagination. She argues that the US-led interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq were characterised by a widespread understanding of war as 'policing' - that is, waged against opponents deemed 'criminal' rather than political, and directed at the creation and maintenance of a certain type of 'order'. Holmqvist turns to themes of social theory and philosophy to offer new perspectives on why the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq were waged in the way they were, and why the fantasy of policing wars came to resonate so widely amongst policy makers and academics alike.
This unique contribution to the study of war and international politics will appeal to scholars of the philosophy and sociology of war, military strategy and international relations.

Policing is a highly pragmatic occupation. It is designed to achieve the important social ends of peacekeeping and public safety, and is empowered to do so using means that are ordinarily seen as problematic; that is, the use of force, deception, and invasions of privacy, along with considerable discretion. It is often suggested that the ends of policing justify the use of otherwise problematic means, but do they? This book explores this question from a philosophical perspective. The relationship between ends and means has a long and contested history both in moral/practical reasoning and public policy. Looking at this history through the lens of policing, criminal justice philosopher John Kleinig explores the dialectic of ends and means (whether the ends justify the means, or whether the ends never justify the means) and offers a new, sharpened perspective on police ethics. After tracing the various ways in which ends and means may be construed, the book surveys a series of increasingly concrete issues, focusing especially on those that arise in policing contexts. The competing moral demands made by ends and means culminate in considerations of noble cause corruption, dirty hands theory, lesser degradations (such as tear gas, tasers, chokeholds, and so on), and finally, those means deemed impermissible by the majority in Western culture, such as torture.

Police detention is the place where suspects are taken whilst their case is investigated and a case disposal decision is reached. It is also a largely hidden, but vital, part of police work and an under-explored aspect of police studies. This book provides a much-needed comparative perspective on police detention. It examines variations in the relationship between police powers and citizens' rights inside police detention in cities in four jurisdictions (in Australia, England, Ireland and the US), exploring in particular the relative influence of discretion, the law and other rule structures on police practices, as well as seeking to explain why these variations arise and what they reveal about state-citizen relations in neoliberal democracies. This book draws on data collected in a multi-method study in five cities in Australia, England, Ireland and the US. This entailed 480 hours of observation, as well as 71 semi-structured interviews with police officers and detainees. Aside from filling in the gaps in the existing research, this book makes a significant contribution to debates about the links between police practices and neoliberalism. In particular, it examines the police, not just the prison, as a site of neoliberal governance. By combining the empirical with the theoretical, the main themes of the book are likely to be of utmost importance to contemporary discussions about police work in increasingly unequal societies. As a result, it will also have a wide appeal to scholars and students, particularly in criminology and criminal justice.

This volume is a collection of interviews with policing leaders that explores their understanding of policing developments and current challenges in their own countries and internationally, and examines how they evaluate or interpret these developments. The book is based on the premise that police officials have a wealth of experience that can make significant contributions to our understanding of the prospects and problems of policing today. In this book, ten police leaders from the continents of North America, Asia, Australasia, Africa, and Europe offer their combined experiences in policing. The interviews, conducted by experienced policing academics, capture how these officers personally, as well as through their organizations, have confronted many waves of change - political, social, and institutional. Interviews examine each professional's assessment of their career path; changes experienced during their career; their personal policing philosophy; problems and successes experienced in leadership; their views on the contribution of theory to practice; their experience of transnational relations; their understanding of nature of democratic policing; and their assessment of how policing will change in the future. As police and policing across the world face a turning point, this book offers ideas and best practices from the front lines on ways to respond with vigor, creativity, and sensitivity to the challenges of repositioning police in the twenty-first century.

One of the hallmarks of the Soviet system was its heavy reliance on internal and foreign security and intelligence organizations. Not surprisingly, given the secrecy surrounding Soviet efforts in these areas, no biographical reference tools and few bibliographies have been published to date. In this context, Michael Parrish's work is a unique undertaking. In the first section to the volume, biographies are provided on some 4,000 officials in senior and mid-level positions who had served in Cheka, NKVD/RFSFR, GPU, KGB, and other organizations. Also included are officials of the Committee for State Control (formerly Ministry of State Control, and, before that, Commissariat of Workers and Peasants' Inspection). Prominent political personalities with earlier ties to security services, such as N.A. Bulganin, are listed even though such service formed only a brief part of their careers. Others listed include party officials, such as A.A. Kuznetsov, who at different times served as the Party's watchdog of security organs. Also included, because of their close association with repression and security organs, are members of Stalin's inner circle.

The second part of the volume is a survey of books in English published between 1917 and 1990 which related to Soviet security and intelligence organizations. This is followed by a biographical addendum, a glossary of terms, and material showing the development of Soviet security organizations. No one concerned with current intelligence issues and the role of security organizations in Soviet life can ignore this volume.

This book promotes new theoretical frameworks and research questions that seek to advance knowledge of policing across internal and external organisational boundaries, specifically at the structural level of analysis. It addresses police theory, policy and practice, and also provides new directions for future research on intra- and inter-organisational policing. Analysing boundaries is of increasing global importance for policing policy and practice. Boundaries reflect the division-of-labour inherent to complex organisations and their specialist units. In order to operate effectively, however, these boundaries must be crossed, and strong and reliable linkages must be built. Intra-organisationally, it is vital to understand how specialist units form and function and interact with other units. Inter-organisationally, it is fundamental to recognise the place of boundaries in contexts such as international police cooperation. Chapter 3 of this book is freely available as a downloadable Open Access PDF under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 3.0 license. https://tandfbis.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/rt-files/docs/Open+Access+Chapters/9780367182915_oachapter3.pdf Chapter 4 of this book is freely available as a downloadable Open Access PDF under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 3.0 license. https://tandfbis.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/rt-files/docs/Open+Access+Chapters/9780367182915_oachapter4.pdf

The SAGE Dictionary of Policing is the definitive reference tool for students, academics and practitioners in police studies. The Dictionary delivers a complete guide to policing in a comprehensive, easy-to-use format. Contributions by 110 of the world's leading academics and practitioners based in 14 countries map out all the key concepts and topics in the field. Each entry includes: " a concise definition " distinctive features of the concept " a critical evaluation " associated concepts, directing readers to linked entries " key readings, enabling readers to take their knowledge further. In addition, The SAGE Dictionary of Policing offers online resources, including free access to key articles and links to useful websites. This is a must-have for students, lecturers, researchers and professionals in police studies, criminology and criminal justice. It is the ideal companion to the SAGE Dictionary of Criminology: together the two books provide the most authoritative and comprehensive guide available. Alison Wakefield is Senior Lecturer in Criminology at the University of New South Wales. She was previously based at City University, London. Jenny Fleming is Professor at the Tasmanian Institute of Law Enforcement Studies, University of Tasmania.

Juveniles possess less maturity, intelligence, and competence than adults, heightening their vulnerability in the justice system. For this reason, states try juveniles in separate courts and use different sentencing standards than for adults. Yet, when police bring kids in for questioning, they use the same interrogation tactics they use for adults, including trickery, deception, and lying to elicit confessions or to produce incriminating evidence against the defendants. In Kids, Cops, and Confessions, Barry Feld offers the first report of what actually happens when police question juveniles. Drawing on remarkable data, Feld analyzes interrogation tapes and transcripts, police reports, juvenile court filings and sentences, and probation and sentencing reports, describing in rich detail what actually happens in the interrogation room. Contrasting routine interrogation and false confessions enables police, lawyers, and judges to identify interrogations that require enhanced scrutiny, to adopt policies to protect citizens, and to assure reliability and integrity of the justice system. Feld has produced an invaluable look at how the justice system really works.

Active Shooter Response Training: Lone Wolf to Coordinated Attack, Second Edition, provides expanded and updated training for police and security officers who must respond to an active shooter situation. This manual addresses all facets of preparation and response, from complex logistical organization to collective and individual tactics, as well as special units or special skills tasks. Based on time-tested military training doctrine, the program described here offers a template for agencies of all sizes to offer training that effectively utilizes officers' available time. Hyderkhan and his expert contributors cover all aspects of the active shooter response (ASR) mission, from risk analysis to logistical planning for mass casualty events. He also addresses medical care and evacuation, reunification procedures, and post-incident investigation. Active Shooter Response Training, Second Edition, provides the tools needed to prevent or mitigate tragedy in our religious congregations, schools, and public places. The book includes a voucher code for a 50% discount off of the companion online library of training videos This book is directed to law enforcement agencies, private security teams, training organizations, police leaders, and individual officers and trainers, in the US and globally. It also has potential as recommended reading in policing courses at the community college and university level.

Much research on policing focuses on individual officer decision making in the field, but officers are positioned within organizations. Organizational characteristics, including structures, policies, management, training, culture, traditions, and the environmental context affect individual officer behavior and attitudes. Recent high-profile controversies surrounding policing have generated interest in examining what factors may have led to current crises. In this book, contributors discuss how police department priorities are made; how departments respond to sexual assault complaints; how forensic scientists deal with job stress and satisfaction; how police use gun crime incident reviews for problem solving and information sharing; how police officers view the use of body-worn cameras given their perceptions of organizational justice; and how officers view their work culture. The purpose of this book is to give policy makers and scholars some guidance on the interplay between the individual and the organization. By understanding this dynamic, police administrators should be able to better devise reform efforts. This book was originally published as a special issue of the Journal of Crime and Justice.

Nightlife is a place of both real and imagined risk, a 'frontier' (Melbin 1978) where apparent freedom and transgression are closely linked, and where regulation of leisure and collective intoxication has been diffused throughout an expanding network of state and private actors. This book explores Sydney's contemporary night-time economy as the product of an intersection of both local and global transformations, as policing comes to incorporate more and more 'private' personnel empowered to regulate 'public' drinking and nightlife. Policing Nightlife focuses on the historical and social conditions, cultural meanings and regulatory controls that have shaped both public and private forms of policing and security in contemporary urban nightlife. In so doing, it reflects more broadly on global changes in the nature of contemporary policing and how aspects of neoliberalism and the ideal of the '24-hour city' have shaped policing, security and night-time leisure. Based on a decade of research and interviews with both police and doorstaff working in nightlife settings, it explores the effectiveness of policies governing policing and private security in the night-time economy in the context of media, political and public debates about regulation, and the gendered and highly masculine aspects of much of this work. An accessible and compelling read, this book will appeal to students and scholars of criminology, policing, sociology and those interested in understanding the debates surrounding security, policing and contemporary urban nightlife.

The Corruption of Ethos in Fortress America: Billionaires, Bureaucrats, and Body Slams argues that authoritarian strains of U.S. governance violate the idea of ethos in its ancient, collectivist sense. Christopher Carter posits that this corrupts the cultural "dwelling place" through public relations strategies, policies on race and immigration, and a general disregard for environmental concerns. Donald Trump's presidency provides a signal instance of the problem, refashioning the dwelling place as a fortress while promoting sweeping forms of exclusion and appealing to power for power's sake. Carter's analysis shows that, emboldened by the purported flexibility of truth, Trump's authoritarian rhetoric underwrites unrestrained policing, militarized borders, populist nationalism, and relentless assaults on investigative journalism. These trends bode ill for human rights and critical education as well as progressive social movements and the forms of life they entail. Worse yet, the corruption of ethos threatens life in general by privileging corporate prerogatives over ecological attunement. In response to those tendencies, Carter highlights modes of activism that merge antiracist and labor rhetoric to offer a more fluid, unpredictably emergent vision of social space, allying with ecofeminism in ways that make that vision durable. Scholars of rhetoric, political science, history, ecology, race studies, and American studies will find this book particularly useful.

Active Shooter Response Training: Lone Wolf to Coordinated Attack, Second Edition, provides expanded and updated training for police and security officers who must respond to an active shooter situation. This manual addresses all facets of preparation and response, from complex logistical organization to collective and individual tactics, as well as special units or special skills tasks. Based on time-tested military training doctrine, the program described here offers a template for agencies of all sizes to offer training that effectively utilizes officers' available time. Hyderkhan and his expert contributors cover all aspects of the active shooter response (ASR) mission, from risk analysis to logistical planning for mass casualty events. He also addresses medical care and evacuation, reunification procedures, and post-incident investigation. Active Shooter Response Training, Second Edition, provides the tools needed to prevent or mitigate tragedy in our religious congregations, schools, and public places. The book includes a voucher code for a 50% discount off of the companion online library of training videos This book is directed to law enforcement agencies, private security teams, training organizations, police leaders, and individual officers and trainers, in the US and globally. It also has potential as recommended reading in policing courses at the community college and university level.

Weapons of Mass Destruction are diverse and pose unique challenges to governments attempting to keep them out of the wrong hands and preparing to respond to an attack. This text analyzes Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) weapons and terrorist groups with a known interest in them. It presents accessible information about the technical challenges posed by each type of weapon, assesses the threats, and reviews the US governmental responses. It provides structured CBRN case studies and allows for easy comparison of threats, challenges, and responses. The text combines weapons and policy information in one comprehensive and comparative resource for researchers and students interested in key issues in modern terrorism and international security.

This volume examines the relationship between privacy, surveillance and security, and the alleged privacy-security trade-off, focusing on the citizen's perspective. Recent revelations of mass surveillance programmes clearly demonstrate the ever-increasing capabilities of surveillance technologies. The lack of serious reactions to these activities shows that the political will to implement them appears to be an unbroken trend. The resulting move into a surveillance society is, however, contested for many reasons. Are the resulting infringements of privacy and other human rights compatible with democratic societies? Is security necessarily depending on surveillance? Are there alternative ways to frame security? Is it possible to gain in security by giving up civil liberties, or is it even necessary to do so, and do citizens adopt this trade-off? This volume contributes to a better and deeper understanding of the relation between privacy, surveillance and security, comprising in-depth investigations and studies of the common narrative that more security can only come at the expense of sacrifice of privacy. The book combines theoretical research with a wide range of empirical studies focusing on the citizen's perspective. It presents empirical research exploring factors and criteria relevant for the assessment of surveillance technologies. The book also deals with the governance of surveillance technologies. New approaches and instruments for the regulation of security technologies and measures are presented, and recommendations for security policies in line with ethics and fundamental rights are discussed. This book will be of much interest to students of surveillance studies, critical security studies, intelligence studies, EU politics and IR in general. A PDF version of this book is available for free in open access via www.tandfebooks.com. It has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 3.0 license.

This book offers an historical and contemporary analysis of policing and police-citizen relations in Nigeria, to understand why people co-operate (or don't) with the police. It examines police legitimacy and the validity of procedural justice theory in a post-colonial African context where corruption, brutality and lack of accountability are not uncommon, to find more refined and alternative answers to the question of why people co-operate (or don't) with the police. The history of policing in Nigeria is explored first and then procedural justice theory is tested through an extensive, cross-sectional survey of the public. One of the core findings is that citizens' co-operation with the police is driven less by legitimacy but more by effectiveness considerations and "dull compulsion", a concept akin to legal cynicism. This study represents one of the first attempts to test and understand "dull compulsion" and its relevance in this context. Overall, it develops the field by illustrating that that there are significant variations between contexts when addressing the influence of perceived procedural justice policing on perceptions of police legitimacy, and it explains the implications for policy makers.

Police body-worn cameras (BWCs) are at the cutting edge of policing. They have sparked important conversations about the proper role and extent of police in society and about balancing security, oversight, accountability, privacy, and surveillance in our modern world. Police on Camera address the conceptual and empirical evidence surrounding the use of BWCs by police officers in societies around the globe, offering a variety of differing opinions from experts in the field. The book provides the reader with conceptual and empirical analyses of the role and impact of police body-worn cameras in society. These analyses are complimented by invited commentaries designed to open up dialogue and generate debate on these important social issues. The book offers informed, critical commentary to the ongoing debates about the implications that BWCs have for society in various parts of the world, with special attention to issues of police accountability and discretion, privacy, and surveillance. This book is designed to be accessible to a broad audience, and is targeted at scholars and students of surveillance, law and policy, and the police, as well as policymakers and others interested in how surveillance technologies are impacting our modern world and criminal justice institutions.

Problem-Oriented Policing: Successful Case Studies is the first systematic and rigorous collection of effective problem-oriented policing projects. It includes more than twenty case studies from among the thousands of projects submitted for the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing. The volume describes in detail the case studies and explains the wider significance of each for effective, efficient, and equitable policing. This book explores a wide range of problems that fall under five general categories: gang violence; violence against women; vulnerable people; disorderly places; and theft, robbery, and burglary. The case studies tell stories of how police, in collaboration with others, successfully tackled real-world policing problems fairly and effectively. The authors have also drawn out of the case studies the cross-cutting themes and issues they illustrate. The authors prove that the concept can work, bring to life the context in which police and communities addressed these vexing problems, and, ideally, will inspire future problem-oriented police work that builds on these reported successes. Written in a clear and direct style, this book will appeal to students and scholars of policing, criminology, and social studies; police practitioners and crime analysts; and all those who are interested in learning more about the reality of police problem-solving.

The Routledge Handbook on Israeli Security provides an authoritative survey of both the historical roots of Israel's national security concerns and their principal contemporary expressions. Following an introduction setting out its central themes, the Handbook comprises 27 independent chapters, all written by experts in their fields, several of whom possess first-hand diplomatic and/or military experience at senior levels. An especially noteworthy feature of this volume is the space allotted to analyses of the impact of security challenges not just on Israel's diplomatic and military postures (nuclear as well as conventional) but also on its cultural life and societal behavior. Specifically, it aims to fulfill three principal needs. The first is to illustrate the dynamic nature of Israel's security concerns and the ways in which they have evolved in response to changes in the country's diplomatic and geo-strategic environment, changes that have been further fueled by technological, economic and demographic transformations; Second, the book aims to examine how the evolving character of Israel's security challenges has generated multiple - and sometimes conflicting - interpretations of the very concept of "security", resulting in a series of dialogues both within Israeli society and between Israelis and their friends and allies abroad; Finally, it also discusses how areas of private and public life elsewhere considered inherently "civilian" and unrelated to security, such as artistic and cultural institutions, nevertheless do mirror the broader legal, economic and cultural consequences of this Israeli preoccupation with national security. This comprehensive and up-to-date collection of studies provides an authoritative and interdisciplinary guide to both the dynamism of Israel's security dilemmas and to their multiple impacts on Israeli society. In addition to its insights and appeal for all people and countries forced to address the security issue in today's world, this Handbook is a valuable resource for upper-level undergraduates and researchers with an interest in the Middle East and Israeli politics, international relations and security studies.

The eminent contributors to a new collection, Policing in France, provide an updated and realistic picture of how the French police system really works in the 21st century. In most international comparisons, France typifies the "Napoleonic" model for policing, one featuring administrative and political centralization, a strong hierarchical structure, distance from local communities, and a high priority on political policing. France has undergone a process of pluralization in the last 30 years. French administrative and political decentralization has reemphasized the role of local authorities in public security policies; the private security industry has grown significantly; and new kinds of governing models (based on arrangements such as contracts for service provision) have emerged. In addition, during this period, police organizations have been driven toward central government control through the imposition of performance indicators, and a top-down decision was made to integrate the national gendarmerie into the Ministry of Interior. The book addresses how police legitimacy differs across socioeconomic, generational, territorial, and ethnic lines. An analysis of the policing of banlieues (deprived neighborhoods) illustrates the convergence of contradictory police goals, police violence, the concentration of poverty, and entrenched opposition to the states' representatives, and questions policing strategies such as the use of identity checks. The collection also frames the scope of community policing initiatives required to deal with the public's security needs and delves into the security challenges presented by terrorist threats and the nuances of the relationship between policing and intelligence agencies. Identifying and explaining the diverse challenges facing French police organizations and how they have been responding to them, this book draws upon a flourishing French-language literature in history, sociology, political science, and law to produce this new English-language synthesis on policing in France. This book is a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners working in and around French policing, as well as students of international law enforcement.

The eminent contributors to a new collection, Policing in France, provide an updated and realistic picture of how the French police system really works in the 21st century. In most international comparisons, France typifies the "Napoleonic" model for policing, one featuring administrative and political centralization, a strong hierarchical structure, distance from local communities, and a high priority on political policing. France has undergone a process of pluralization in the last 30 years. French administrative and political decentralization has reemphasized the role of local authorities in public security policies; the private security industry has grown significantly; and new kinds of governing models (based on arrangements such as contracts for service provision) have emerged. In addition, during this period, police organizations have been driven toward central government control through the imposition of performance indicators, and a top-down decision was made to integrate the national gendarmerie into the Ministry of Interior. The book addresses how police legitimacy differs across socioeconomic, generational, territorial, and ethnic lines. An analysis of the policing of banlieues (deprived neighborhoods) illustrates the convergence of contradictory police goals, police violence, the concentration of poverty, and entrenched opposition to the states' representatives, and questions policing strategies such as the use of identity checks. The collection also frames the scope of community policing initiatives required to deal with the public's security needs and delves into the security challenges presented by terrorist threats and the nuances of the relationship between policing and intelligence agencies. Identifying and explaining the diverse challenges facing French police organizations and how they have been responding to them, this book draws upon a flourishing French-language literature in history, sociology, political science, and law to produce this new English-language synthesis on policing in France. This book is a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners working in and around French policing, as well as students of international law enforcement.

The Police Misconduct Complaint Investigations Manual provides a timely and unique, step-by-step approach to conducting or reviewing police misconduct investigations, whether a complaint involves a lower-level allegation of discourtesy or more serious concerns such as excessive force or criminal behavior. Utilizing real-life examples and updated case law to illustrate points, it provides best practices for investigating police action resulting in misconduct complaints. The Manual's comprehensive approach includes detailed procedures and policy considerations from intake through case closure, and discusses data tracking, reporting on trends, selecting and training investigative staff, civilian oversight, and a host of special issues that can arise with police misconduct complaints. The Manual is suitable for both sworn personnel and civilians handling or reviewing investigations and whether working internally for a police department or externally in oversight or another capacity. The guidance provides detailed examples of witness interview questions and types of evidence to collect, with discussion on making difficult credibility determinations and approaches to analyzing the information gathered to arrive at a recommended finding. Review questions are found at the end of most chapters, for use in academic or investigative training environments. Police officers engaged in the often complex and challenging work of public safety deserve and expect objective, thorough, and timely handling of complaints. Complainants and other stakeholders seek accountability and transparency when an officer behaves in a way that raises questions about their professionalism. The Complaint Investigations Manual provides instruction on handling misconduct complaints in a manner that will ensure the goals of law enforcement and stakeholders are met. The authors intentionally use a broad approach to make the Manual relevant and easy to use by law enforcement personnel, civilians in oversight or other capacities who work on police misconduct matters, and the criminal justice academic community. It is a critical primer for internal affairs investigators, police managers, law enforcement leaders, auditing professionals, civilian oversight practitioners, government representatives, community advocates, criminal and social justice students, and all others in pursuit of fair, thorough, and timely investigations of police misconduct complaints.