The 26 recognized minor phyla comprise aberrant clades, as most of them terminate as blind offshoots. Untied from the discussion on their phylogenesis of minor phyla, this book is largely devoted, for the first time, to aspects of reproduction and development in minor phyletics. The minor phyla are not as speciose (1,795 species/phylum) as the major phyla (157,066 species/phylum) are. The accumulation of deleterious genes causes inbreeding depression among progenies arising from parthenogenesis, clonal multiplication and selfing hermaphrodites. The reason for the limited species diversity in minor phyla is traced to (i) eutelism in 65.7% of minor phyletics and (ii) existence of 21.6% clonals, (iii) 6.4% parthenogens and (iv) 1.2% selfing hermaphroditism. Gonochorism obligately requires motility to search for a mate. The combination of low motility and gonochorism from Placozoa to hemocoelomatic minor phyla has limited diversity to < 1,000 species. Over 19% of minor phyletics are hermaphrodites. With the need to manifest and maintain dual sexuality, fecundity of hermaphrodites may be reduced to 50% of that in gonochores. Adopting an array of strategies, < 100 hermaphrodites are selfers. In eutelics, mitotic division is ceased in somatic cells after hatching. For the first time, the prevalence of eutelism has been brought to light in numbers of all the six pseudocoelomate phyla and priapulids. Eutelism limits fecundity to 30-300 eggs in free-living pseudocoelomates, priapulids and possibly other hemocoelomates. In them, sperm production is less than that of egg production; as a result, a large fraction of their eggs is sterile. With a high proportion of non-eutelic gametic cells (35%), Nematoda and possibly Nematomorpha and Acanthocephala are more fecund than rotifers, in which the proportion is 15%. Briefly, the reasons for the limited species diversity in minor phyletics are traced to eutelism, parthenogenesis and clonal multiplication. Surprisingly, parthenogenesis and clonal multiplication mutually eliminate each other. This is also true of hermaphroditism and parthenogenesis. However, clonal multiplication is prevalent from structurally simplest Placozoa to the most complex Ascidiacea, except in pseudocoelomates and hemocoelomates. A limited number of cells and cell types, and the consequent structural simplicity facilitate manifestation of parthenogenesis in pseudocoelomates and parasitism in Mesozoa, Myxozoa, 59% of Nematoda, Nematomorpha, Acanthocephala and Pentastomida. Despite hermaphroditism, Bryozoa (5,700 species) and Ascidiacea (3,000 species) are speciose among minor phyla. For the first time, the importance of fusion of fragments or colonies - an event equivalent to gamete fusion at fertilization - is recognized as a source of new gene combination. Besides, the colonies in these minor phyla degenerate and regenerate more or less regularly. Only the fittest degenerated colonies may be rejuvenated and regenerated.

Originally published in 1975 Terrestrial Environments covers the zoogeography and ecology of the main terrestrial environments of the world, including fresh water habitats with emphasis on their fauna. The book also explores climate and vegetation in so far as they affect animal life. Finally, the selective influence of the environment on its fauna is discussed and, conversely, the influence of regulation, a synthesis of these interrelations. Morphological adaptations of the animals inhabiting various types of terrestrial environments are considered in relation to locomotion, feeding, and escape from enemies. Physiological adaptations are also mentioned briefly, and the adaptative importunate of diurnal and seasonal rhythms is stressed.

A quick fish identification guide for divers and snorkellers in the Maldives and wider Indian Ocean region. A perfect guide to check on those mystery fishes seen during dives. Symbols highlight points of interest and differences between similar species. The Fish Field Guide Maldives is compact, easy to use and is designed to assist in field work and conservation initiatives. A companion guide to the book Fishes of the Maldives, Indian Ocean.

1. Fills an important niche in the market - there are currently no books designed to help educate students about social science professional opportunities that incorporate animals. 2. Provides insights into careers of leaders in the HAI field, including: their background history, 'A Day in the Life of...' vignettes, honest accounts of the challenges and rewards of the job, and advice for those seeking a similar role. 3. Clearly outlines the sometimes unclear career paths available to social science students, from careers connected to human services (therapy, social work, journalism) to research or other scholarship.

Most people know of aphids as garden pests, infesting the soft green tissues of plants in vast numbers and killing them by sucking out the sap. Indeed, among the 4000 or so known species of aphids about 250 are pests, and in temperate regions several are economically important agricultural pests that damage crops directly during feeding or act as vectors for plant pathogens. But aphids are also important model organisms in evolutionary biology and ecology because they combine a number of unique features such as complex life cycles involving the development of morphological distinct phenotypes (polyphenism), sexual and asexual reproduction strategies and changes of host plants. Aphids can also be regarded as holobionts because they are colonized by obligate and facultative microbes which enable them to feed exclusively on phloem sap and influence their resistance against pathogens, parasitoids or environmental stress. This book combines fundamental information about aphids with chapters addressing state-of-the-art research in topics such as aphid-related phylogeny, genome biology, epigenetics and chemical ecology.

Originally published in 1974, this volume examines the behavioural similarities of obese humans and animals whose so-called feeding centre (the ventro-medial hypothalamic nuclei) has been lesioned. Both the obese human and the VMH-lesioned animal seem to share a hyposensitivity to the internal (physiological) cues to eating and hypersensitivity to external cues associated with food. Beginning with a review, these obese animals and the human obese are compared point by point on experimental results reported in the literature. Then, new findings are presented that specifically tested humans for relationships that are well-established for lesioned animals. Next, a theoretical framework integrates the human and animal data to postulate that the relationship of cue prominence and probability of response is stronger for the obese than for normal. The causes for this, and the extension of the basis for the obese's eating behaviour to other areas, are discussed in light of further experiments that will make this invaluable reading for all concerned with the history of obesity and the issues of regulatory behaviour.

This book recounts the habits of many interesting and unusual exceptions to the rule that insects are typically terrestrial forms of life. It examines the different ways that groups of species have developed modes of existence in or on the surface of water, and gives reasons why the gross morphology of insects is not favorable for life in or near bodies of water, such as wings that fail to function after coming into contact with water, rendering them useless.

The history of pathogens and vectors, unique symptoms of diseases and economic importance of important viral diseases have been dealt with in the introductory chapter of this book. While highlighting the role of arthropods, nematodes, and fungi; other agents of the spread of plant pathogens have also been included. Important aspects of insect vectors with direct bearing on transmission, i.e. vector identification, biology, feeding apparatus, and mechanism of spread including control of pathogens through vectors are covered comprehensively. As aphids and other hemipterous insects are major insect vectors, the book stresses on this order. There is a focus on the transmission of determinants under different categories of the transmission mechanism. The transmission determinant paradigm comprising coat protein and helper component has been expounded with recent cases. A brief description of new diseases at least one from each genus of plant viruses has been included in this compendium to elucidate the interaction of vector and virus. Phytoplasmal etiology of pathogens has been detailed separately on account of their importance. The transmission of plant viruses through insects with biting and chewing type of mouth parts has been discussed in detail as separate chapter. The latest research in the field of mites, nematodes, and fungi as vectors of plant viruses has been included. How the phytotoxemia is different from other crop disorders, has been critically explained with support from suitable and common examples of crop disorders. The book also highlights the effects of plant viruses on their vectors. An account of classification of plant viruses has also been given for better understanding of subject matter. Likewise, the information on the electron microscope along with its use has been included so as to define the procedure of examining sub-microscopic entities. The latest developments in the management of plant pathogens through vector management have been discussed with special reference to the use of biotechnology, crop protection, and plant resistance. The book will be of value to the teachers and to researchers. It will also be useful for extension workers in managing crop disorders. Students and researchers of entomology, plant pathology, plant protection and virology disciplines will obtain the latest in the field, through this book.

This book is a concise informative elucidation of all aspects of reproduction and development in annelids covering from arenicola to tubifex. Annelids flourish between 4,900 m depth to 2,000 m altitude; some of them occur in unusual habitats like hydrothermal vents and subterranean aquatic system (stigobionts). A few have no gut and acquire adequate nutrients through osmotrophism and/or engaging symbiotic microbes. In the absence of exoskeleton to escape predation, the 17,000 speciose annelids have explored bewildering modes of reproduction; not surprisingly, 42-47% of them are brooders. With 13,000 species, polychaetes are gonochores but some 207 species of them are hermaphrodites. Clitellates are all hermaphrodites; of them, 76 species are parthenogens, of which 56 are earthworms. Regenerative potency of annelids ranges from an organ to an entire worm from a single 'seminal' segment. The head, tail and both together can be regenerated 21, 42 and 20 times, respectively. However, the potency is limited to ~1% of polychaetes and < 2% of oligochaetes. In oligochaetes, the chloragogue temporally separates regeneration and reproduction but sedentary polychaetes undertake them together at the reduced reproductive output. Only 79 polychaete and 111 oligochaete species have the potency for clonal reproduction. Within families, the potency ranges from 2% in spionids to 54% in naidids. Epitoky, a spectacular and unique phenomenon, involves the transformation from benthic to meroplanktonic reproductive morphism. It occurs in 106 errant polychaete species. The larger glycerides, nereidids and eunicids use muscular energy to climb < 50 m vertical distance. But the small phyllodocids and cteniodrilids may reduce buoyancy to climb 1,000-4,000 m vertical distance. Heterogamatic sex determination is reported to occur only in six polychaete species, although karyotype is known for 83 annelid species. In temperate polychaetes, a dozen neuroendocrines, arising mostly from the 'brain' regulates reproductive cycle. A complete chapter devoted to vermiculture, (i) recognizes the fast-growing candidate species, (ii) distinguishes 'layers' from 'brooders', (iii) indicates that the harvest of oligochaetes may reduce the input of nitrogenous fertilizer in the ricefield, and (iv) explores the scope for increasing wealth from waste.

This book reviews up-to-date knowledge on the biology of sole (Solea senegalensis and S. solea). These flatfish species are increasingly important in Europe both from the ecological and production point of view. This book is divided into two sections: A. general fisheries, aquaculture and engineering overviews; B. physiological, developmental, rhythmic, welfare and genetic aspects which will be of immense interest for the aquaculture industry. Experts, from both academia and research institutes, provide their expertise on sole biology.

Mullets (grey mullets) are a family (Mugilidae) and order of ray-finned fish found in temperate and tropical waters worldwide. There are approximately 80 species of mullet; these fish have been considered an important food source in Mediterranean Europe since Roman times. This book provides a long overdue update on the biology and ecology of mullets and features comprehensive coverage of the key features of the Mugilidae family, such as recent DNA evidence and morphological data that challenge the traditional taxonomy.

This book is perhaps the first attempt to comprehensively project the uniqueness of molluscs, covering almost all aspects of reproduction and development from aplacophorans to vampyromorphic cephalopods. Molluscs are unique for the presence of protective external shell, defensive inking, geographic distribution from the depth of 9,050 m to an altitude of 4,300 m, gamete diversity, the use of nurse eggs and embryos to accelerate the first few mitotic divisions in embryos, the natural occurrence of androgenics in a couple of bivalves, viable induced tetraploids, gigantism induced by elevated ploidy, the complementary role played by mitochondrial genome in sex determination by nuclear genes and the uptake and accumulation of steroid hormone from surrounding waters. In molluscs, sexuality comprises of gonochorism (< 75 %) and hermaphroditism, which itself includes simultaneous (> 24%), protandry (< 1 %), Marian and serial. In them, the presence of shell affords iteroparity and relatively longer life span in prosobranchs and bivalves but its absence semelparity and short life span in opisthobranchs and cephalopods. Within semelparity, gonochorism facilitates faster growth and larger body size but hermaphroditism small body size. In them, sex is irrevocably determined at fertilization by a few unknown genes and is not amenable to any environmental influence. However, the sex determining mechanism is more a family trait in bivalves. Primary sex differentiation is also fixed and not amenable to environmental factor but secondary differentiation is labile, protracted and amenable to environmental factors. Both sex differentiation and reproductive cycle are accomplished and controlled solely by neurohormones. In these processes, the role of steroid hormones may be alien to molluscs.

This book presents a 360-degree picture of the world of insects and explores how their existence affects our lives: the "good, bad, and ugly" aspects of their interactions with humankind. It provides a lucid introductory text for beginning undergraduate students in the life sciences, particularly those pursuing beginner courses in entomology, agriculture, and botany.

Insects have evolved very unique and interesting tactics using chemical signals to survive. Chemical ecology illustrates the working of the biological network by means of chemical analyses. Recent advances in analytical technology have opened the way to a better understanding of the more complicated and abyssal interactions of insects with other organisms including plants and microbes. This book covers recent research on insects and chemical communications and presents the current status about challenges faced by chemical ecologists for the management of pests in agriculture and human health.

Parrotfish are found on almost every coral reef in the world. This ubiquity and uniqueness of their feeding action make them one of the most important groups of fishes within coral reef ecosystems. But why, exactly, are parrotfish so important to reefs? Can the evolution of a particular jaw morphology and feeding action really have had such a large impact on the health and functioning of the world's coral reefs? This book introduces the reader to this fascinating group of fishes (Labridae, Scarinae), from the morphological innovation of a jaw that has the power to bite through solid calcium carbonate, to the threats currently faced by parrotfish populations around the world. It contains new insights into their diet and food processing ability, and lifehistories, and concludes with an overview of emerging and future research directions.

Echinoderms and prochordates occupy a key position in vertebrate evolution. The genomes of sea urchin share 70% homology with humans. Researches on cell cycle in sea urchin and phagocytosis in asteroids have fetched Nobel Prizes. In this context, this book assumes immense importance. Echinoderms are unique, as their symmetry is bilateral in larvae but pentamerous radial in adults. The latter has eliminated the development of an anterior head and bilateral appendages. Further, the obligate need to face the substratum for locomotion and acquisition of food has eliminated their planktonic and nektonic existence. Egg size, a decisive factor in recruitment, increases with decreasing depths up to 2,000-5,000 m in lecithotrophic asteroids and ophiuroids but remains constant in their planktotrophics. Smaller (< 18 mm) ophiuroids do not produce a lecithotrophic eggs but larger (> 110 mm) asteroids generate planktotrophic eggs only. Publications on sex ratio of echinoderms indicate the genetic determination of sex at fertilization but those on hybridization, karyotype and ploidy induction do not provide evidence for heterogametism. But the herbivorous echinoids and larvacea with their gonads harboring both germ cells and Nutritive Phagocytes (NPs) have economized the transportation and hormonal costs on gonadal function. Despite the amazing potential just 2 and 3% of echinoderms undergo clonal reproduction and regeneration, respectively. Fission is triggered, when adequate reserve nutrients are accumulated. It is the most prevalent mode of clonal reproduction in holothuroids, asteroids and ophiuroids. However, budding is a more prevalent mode of clonal reproduction in colonial hemichordates and urochordates. In echinoderms, fission and budding eliminate each other. Similarly, autoregulation of early development eliminates clonal reproduction in echinoids and solitary urochordates. In pterobranchs, thaliaceans and ascidians, the repeated and rapid budding leads to colonial formation. Coloniality imposes reductions in species number and body size, generation time and life span, gonad number and fecundity as well as switching from gonochorism to simultaneous hermaphorditism and oviparity to ovoviviparity/viviparity.

Beach-spawning fishes from exotic locations on most continents of the world provide spectacular examples of extreme adaptations during the most vulnerable life cycle stages. The beauty, intriguing biology, and importance of these charismatic fishes at the interface of marine and terrestrial ecosystems have inspired numerous scientific studies. Adaptations of behavior, physiology, development, and ecology are gathered together for the first time in this book. Beach-Spawning Fishes: Reproduction in an Endangered Ecosystem is a comprehensive guide to beach spawning, a charismatic animal behavior that is seen in a surprising number of teleost species. This unexpected form of reproduction provides a window into the ecology of coastal areas, the behaviors and physiology necessary for fishes and their eggs to adapt to terrestrial conditions, and the threats and challenges for conservation and management. Beach-spawning species include important forage fishes such as the capelin, exotic fishes such as the fugu puffer, and the spectacular midnight runs of the California grunion.

A persistent argument among evolutionary biologists and philosophers revolves around the nature of natural selection. Evolution by Natural Selection: Confidence, Evidence and the Gap explores this argument by using a theory of persistence as an intentional foil to examine ways in which similar theories can be misunderstood. It discusses Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, including what the theory says, what it aims to explain, and how it manages to explain natural selection. Darwin's theory is so familiar today that it feels universally understood. However, the fact that there are so divergent views about the theory means that not everyone who thinks he or she understands it can be right. This book describes the history of evolutionary theory as a sequence of theoretical developments, not all of which can be considered improvements. In particular, it suggests that some attempts to use the theory of natural selection end up reshaping the concepts involved so that they can be applied more easily to the world. As a result, the theory is stripped of some of its explanatory power and becomes detached from the empiricism that good scientific examination requires. With these issues in mind, Evolution by Natural Selection shows there are aspects of the theory of natural selection that are not totally understood. These misunderstandings create problems in uses of the theory. At a time when selectionist explanations are being brought forward to explain an ever-widening range of phenomena, this book analyzes the explanatory structure of Darwin's theory. It takes a much-needed thoughtful look into the working parts of the theory of natural selection to provide better understanding of the theory and its role in contemporary science and life.

Shortlisted for the 2018 TWS Wildlife Publication Awards in the edited book category Lesser Prairie-Chickens have experienced substantial declines in terms of population and the extent of area that they occupy. While they are an elusive species, making it difficult at times to monitor them, current evidence indicates that they have been persistently decreasing in number since the Dust Bowl of the 1930s dramatically affected their core range. In May of 2014, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service listed Lesser Prairie-Chickens as a threatened species, granting them federal protection under the Endangered Species Act, which included a special rule recognizing significant conservation planning efforts made by state and federal wildlife agencies within the geographical range of the species. Although the listing was vacated by judicial ruling in September 2015, concern for persistence of the species persists. These actions illustrate the uncertain legal status and future conservation challenges for Lesser Prairie-Chickens. Ecology and Conservation of Lesser Prairie-Chickens provides a compendium of data, analytical results, and synthesis generated among expert wildlife biologists, conservation biologists, and ornithologists. It thoroughly reviews the life history, genetics, and ecology of the species, and is ultimately directed toward developing and establishing appropriate conservation management strategies. It presents a detailed analysis of the issues and risks relative to conservation as well as an overview of potential conservation tools. It also addresses the challenges that natural resource managers continue to face in their current conservation efforts. While dealing with immediate and short-term issues in Lesser Prairie-Chicken conservation, this book is also a useful starting point for guiding future research, management, and conservation of the species. Published in collaboration with and on behalf of The American Ornithological Society, this volume in the highly-regarded Studies in Avian Biology series provides a definitive reference for researchers, managers, and policy makers as well as those with interests in environmental science, avian biology, game bird management, or Great Plains ecology.

Biogeography and Evolution in New Zealand provides the first in-depth treatment of the biogeography of New Zealand, a region that has been a place of long-enduring interest to ecologists, evolutionary scientists, geographers, geologists, and scientists in related disciplines. It serves as a key addition to the contemporary discussion on regionalization-how is New Zealand different from the rest of the world? With what other areas does it share its geology, history, and biota? Do new molecular phylogenies show that New Zealand may be seen as a biological 'parallel universe' within global evolution?

This book critically investigates the pervasiveness of anthropomorphised animals in popular culture. Anthropomorphism in popular visual media has long been denounced for being unsophisticated or emotionally manipulative. It is often criticised for over-expressing similarities between humans and other animals. This book focuses on everyday encounters with visual representations of anthropomorphised animals and considers how attributing other animals with humanlike qualities speaks to a complex set of power relations. Through a series of case studies, it explores how anthropomorphism is produced and circulated and proposes that it can serve to create both misunderstandings and empathetic connections between humans and other animals. This book will appeal to academics and students interested in visual media, animal studies, sociology and cultural studies.

This volume provides an abundance of valuable first-hand information about the diversity, biology, ecology culture of the portunid crabs of the word seas. Marine crabs play an important role directly or indirectly in the livelihood of millions of people around the world. They have been reported to make up about 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide. Among these marine crabs, portunid crabs (or swimming crabs of the family Portunidae) assume greater significance in the marine industry, owing to their delicate meat with nutritional qualities. Although several species of portunid crabs are edible and commercially important, only a few species have been widely cultivated. This is largely due to the lack of information on the biology of portunid crabs. Keeping this in view, this volume presents the biology and aquaculture of marine portunid crabs. This volume will be of great use for researchers and students of disciplines such as fisheries science, marine biology, aquatic biology and fisheries, and zoology, and will also serve as a standard reference for college, university, and research libraries around the world.

The first comprehensive volume exclusively on marine cone snails, this book provides descriptions of over 100 species of hazardous marine snails along with their biological and ecological characteristics; the characteristics of conotoxins; information on cone snail injuries and their treatment along with prevention measures; and the therapeutic and medicinal value of conotoxins, including as a powerful nonaddictive painkiller, an epilepsy drug, and more. Over 275 color illustrations accompany the text for easy identification.

Fundamentals of Molecular Mycology provides a complete overview of recent developments and applications in molecular mycology. It serves as a comprehensive guide for the identification of fungi and the application of fungal biomolecules in agriculture, food, environment, and pharmaceutical sectors by providing detailed information about application molecular markers and bioinformatics tools for mycology. Covering the most important aspects of molecular mycology, the book focuses on: The application of fungal secondary metabolites in ecosystem management and sustainable agriculture The application of DNA recombinant techniques to improve industrially important fungal species Different molecular markers and genetic approaches for the taxonomical identification of fungi The bioinformatics tool for the identification of fungal species and its secondary metabolites Advances in molecular tools have created a new path for the mycological research and applications in different sectors. Fundamentals of Molecular Mycology is an excellent source of information on molecular mycology tools and applications in various fields. This book will be valuable to biotechnologists at research institutes, academia, and industry researchers, and professionals. The book is also a rich resources for undergraduate and postgraduate biology students in in mycology, botany, microbiology, fungal biology, biotechnology, and molecular biology as well.

This comprehensive volume focuses exclusively on sea snails (or gastropods), which are popular food items and occupy an important role in the commercial shell craft industry. Familiar examples include conchs (highly sought after due to their mild flavor) and escargot, abalone, and periwinkle snails. This book covers the profile (habitat, distribution, morphology, food and feeding, reproduction, conservation status, etc.) of about 180 species of commercial edible marine gastropod molluscs as well as their nutritional values, commercial importance, and pharmaceutical value. Also included is information on their prevalent diseases and parasites. The informative descriptions are presented in an easy-to-read style with neat illustrations.