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This edition of the "Handbook" follows the first edition by 10
years. The earlier edition was a promissory note, presaging the
directions in which the then-emerging field of social cognition was
likely to move. The field was then in its infancy and the areas of
research and theory that came to dominate the field during the next
decade were only beginning to surface. The concepts and methods
used had frequently been borrowed from cognitive psychology and had
been applied to phenomena in a very limited number of areas.
Nevertheless, social cognition promised to develop rapidly into an
important area of psychological inquiry that would ultimately have
an impact on not only several areas of psychology but other fields
as well.
The promises made by the earlier edition have generally been
fulfilled. Since its publication, social cognition has become one
of the most active areas of research in the entire field of
psychology; its influence has extended to health and clinical
psychology, and personality, as well as to political science,
organizational behavior, and marketing and consumer behavior. The
impact of social cognition theory and research within a very short
period of time is incontrovertible. The present volumes provide a
comprehensive and detailed review of the theoretical and empirical
work that has been performed during these years, and of its
implications for information processing in a wide variety of
domains.
The handbook is divided into two volumes. The first provides an
overview of basic research and theory in social information
processing, covering the automatic and controlled processing of
information and its implications for how information is encoded and
stored in memory, the mental representation of persons -- including
oneself -- and events, the role of procedural knowledge in
information processing, inference processes, and response
processes. Special attention is given to the cognitive determinants
and consequences of affect and emotion. The second book provides
detailed discussions of the role of information processing in
specific areas such as stereotyping; communication and persuasion;
political judgment; close relationships; organizational, clinical
and health psychology; and consumer behavior.
The contributors are theorists and researchers who have themselves
carried out important studies in the areas to which their chapters
pertain. In combination, the contents of this two-volume set
provide a sophisticated and in-depth treatment of both theory and
research in this major area of psychological inquiry and the
directions in which it is likely to proceed in the future.
This edition of the "Handbook" follows the first edition by 10
years. The earlier edition was a promissory note, presaging the
directions in which the then-emerging field of social cognition was
likely to move. The field was then in its infancy and the areas of
research and theory that came to dominate the field during the next
decade were only beginning to surface. The concepts and methods
used had frequently been borrowed from cognitive psychology and had
been applied to phenomena in a very limited number of areas.
Nevertheless, social cognition promised to develop rapidly into an
important area of psychological inquiry that would ultimately have
an impact on not only several areas of psychology but other fields
as well.
The promises made by the earlier edition have generally been
fulfilled. Since its publication, social cognition has become one
of the most active areas of research in the entire field of
psychology; its influence has extended to health and clinical
psychology, and personality, as well as to political science,
organizational behavior, and marketing and consumer behavior. The
impact of social cognition theory and research within a very short
period of time is incontrovertible. The present volumes provide a
comprehensive and detailed review of the theoretical and empirical
work that has been performed during these years, and of its
implications for information processing in a wide variety of
domains.
The handbook is divided into two volumes. The first provides an
overview of basic research and theory in social information
processing, covering the automatic and controlled processing of
information and its implications for how information is encoded and
stored in memory, the mental representation of persons -- including
oneself -- and events, the role of procedural knowledge in
information processing, inference processes, and response
processes. Special attention is given to the cognitive determinants
and consequences of affect and emotion. The second book provides
detailed discussions of the role of information processing in
specific areas such as stereotyping; communication and persuasion;
political judgment; close relationships; organizational, clinical
and health psychology; and consumer behavior.
The contributors are theorists and researchers who have themselves
carried out important studies in the areas to which their chapters
pertain. In combination, the contents of this two-volume set
provide a sophisticated and in-depth treatment of both theory and
research in this major area of psychological inquiry and the
directions in which it is likely to proceed in the future.
In this volume, Berkowitz develops the argument that experiential
and behavioral components of an emotional state are affected by
many processes: some are highly cognitive in nature; others are
automatic and involuntary. Cognitive and associative mechanisms
theoretically come into play at different times in the
emotion-cognition sequence. The model he proposes, therefore,
integrates theoretical positions that previously have been
artificially segregated in much of the emotion-cognition
literature.
The breadth of the implications of Berkowitz's theory is also
reflected in the diversity of this book's companion chapters.
Written by researchers whose work focuses on both social cognition
and emotion, these articles provide important insights and possible
extensions of the "cognitive-neoassociationistic" conceptualization
developed in the target article. Although each chapter is a
valuable contribution in its own right, this volume, taken as a
whole, is a timely and important contribution both to social
cognition and to research and theory on emotion per se.
If anyone deserves the title "father of social cognition," it is
William J. McGuire who, along with his wife and colleague Claire V.
McGuire, has written the target article for this volume. The
culmination of many years of work, the article discusses their
highly developed theory of human thought systems, and establishes
many new directions for theoretical and empirical inquiry. Equally
important, however, are the chapters -- written from many different
theoretical and empirical perspectives -- that challenge various
assumptions underlying the McGuires' work. In addition to examining
implications not explicitly considered in the target article, these
contributions explore the new directions that future research and
theorizing might take.
In Volume 3, Eliot R. Smith of Purdue University proposes that
social cognition theorists have placed excessive emphasis on the
role of schemata, prototypes, and various other types of
abstractions. This has affected both the methodologies they use and
the type of theories they construct. What has not been adequately
appreciated is the storage and retrieval of specific episodes,
especially those with idiosyncratic features. This volume s
designed as a required text for those studying personality,
experimental and consumer psychology, cognitive science, and
communications.
The first comprehensive theoretical formulation of the way people
use information they receive about their social environments to
make judgments and behavioral decisions, this volume focuses on the
cognitive processes that underlie the use of social information.
These include initial interpretation, the representations used to
make inferences, and the transformation of these subjective
inferences into overt judgment and behavior. In addition, it
specifies the role of affect and emotion in information processing,
and the role of self-knowledge at different stages of processing.
The theoretical model presented here is the first to provide a
conceptual integration of existing theory and research in all
phases of social information processing. It not only accounts for
the major portion of existing research findings, but permits
several hypotheses to be generated concerning phenomena that have
not yet been empirically investigated. Although focused here on the
processing of information about people and events, the formulation
proposed has implications for other domains such as personnel
appraisal, political decision making, and consumer behavior.
This volume presents a new conceptualization of personality and
social cognition that addresses both traditional and new issues.
Written for students of personality, experimental and consumer
psychology and cognitive science.
This volume presents different perspectives on a dual model of
impression formation -- a theory about how people form impressions
about other people by combining information about a person with
prior knowledge found in long-term memory. This information is of
real importance to graduate students and advanced undergraduates in
cognitive and social psychology, experimental psychology, social
cognition and perception. Each volume in the series will contain a
target article on a recent theoretical development pertinent to
current study followed by critical commentaries offering varying
theoretical viewpoints. This productive dialogue concludes with a
reply by the target article author. The first volume of the series
presents an evaluation of theoretical advances in social cognition
and information processing from new and different perspectives.
Volume 2 presents a new conceptualization of personality and social
cognition by Cantor and Kihlstrom which addresses both new and old
issues. The volumes in this series will interest and enlighten
graduate and advanced undergraduates in cognitive and social
psychology, experimental psychology, social cognition and
perception. The first volume of the series presents an evaluation
of theoretical advances in social cognition and information
processing from new and different perspectives. Each volume in the
series will contain a target article on a recent theoretical
development pertinent to current study followed by critical
commentaries offering varying theoretical viewpoints. This
productive dialog concludes with a reply by the target article
author. The information provided in Volume 1 promises to enrich
graduate and advanced undergraduates in cognitive and social
psychology, experimental psychology, social cognition and
perception. This first volume of the series evaluates the
theoretical advances made in social cognition and information
processing from new and different perspectives. This unique and
lively interchange between the target article author and the
critics will enrich and enlighten psychologists from many
disciplines. Each volume in the series will contain a target
article on a recent theoretical development pertinent to current
study followed by critical commentaries offering varying
theoretical viewpoints. This productive dialog concludes with a
reply by the target article author. The first volume of the series
presents an evaluation of theoretical advances in social cognition
and information processing from new and different perspectives.
Volume 2 presents a new conceptualization of personality and social
cognition by Cantor and Kihlstrom which addresses both new and old
issues. All volumes in this series will interest and enlighten
graduate and advanced undergraduates in cognitive and social
psychology, experimental psychology, social cognition and
perception.
The first comprehensive theoretical formulation of the way people
use information they receive about their social environments to
make judgments and behavioral decisions, this volume focuses on the
cognitive processes that underlie the use of social information.
These include initial interpretation, the representations used to
make inferences, and the transformation of these subjective
inferences into overt judgment and behavior. In addition, it
specifies the role of affect and emotion in information processing,
and the role of self-knowledge at different stages of processing.
The theoretical model presented here is the first to provide a
conceptual integration of existing theory and research in all
phases of social information processing. It not only accounts for
the major portion of existing research findings, but permits
several hypotheses to be generated concerning phenomena that have
not yet been empirically investigated. Although focused here on the
processing of information about people and events, the formulation
proposed has implications for other domains such as personnel
appraisal, political decision making, and consumer behavior.
Written by one of the foremost authorities in social cognition,
Social Comprehension and Judgment examines how people process
information encountered in their everyday lives. In the book, Dr.
Wyer proposes a new theory about the way in which information
acquired in everyday life is comprehended and represented in
memory, and how it is later used as a basis for judgments and
decisions. A major emphasis throughout is on the construction and
use of narrative representations of knowledge and the way that
visual images influence the comprehension of these narratives and
the judgments based on them. The role of affective reactions in
this cognitive activity is also discussed. Social Comprehension and
Judgment is divided into three sections. Part I provides a
conceptual overview by outlining the general theoretical framework
focusing on assumptions about the storage and retrieval of
information and reviews recent research on the impact of knowledge
accessibility on judgments and decisions. Part II deals with the
comprehension of information, and examines the role of these
processes in impression formation, persuasion, and responses to
humor. Part III describes the inferences that are based on
information conveyed in social situations. This book is ideal for
advanced students and researchers interested in the areas of social
cognition or social information processing.
Written by one of the foremost authorities in social cognition,
Social Comprehension and Judgment examines how people process
information encountered in their everyday lives. In the book, Dr.
Wyer proposes a new theory about the way in which information
acquired in everyday life is comprehended and represented in
memory, and how it is later used as a basis for judgments and
decisions. A major emphasis throughout is on the construction and
use of narrative representations of knowledge and the way that
visual images influence the comprehension of these narratives and
the judgments based on them. The role of affective reactions in
this cognitive activity is also discussed. Social Comprehension and
Judgment is divided into three sections. Part I provides a
conceptual overview by outlining the general theoretical framework
focusing on assumptions about the storage and retrieval of
information and reviews recent research on the impact of knowledge
accessibility on judgments and decisions. Part II deals with the
comprehension of information, and examines the role of these
processes in impression formation, persuasion, and responses to
humor. Part III describes the inferences that are based on
information conveyed in social situations. This book is ideal for
advanced students and researchers interested in the areas of social
cognition or social information processing.
The use of social sterotypes as a basis for judgments and
behavioral decisions has been a major focus of social psychological
theory and research since the field began. Although motivational
and cognitive influences on stereotyping have been considered,
these two general types of influence have rarely been conceptually
integrated within a common theoretical framework. Nevertheless,
almost every area of theoretical and empirical concern in social
cognition--areas such as the interpretation of new information,
memory and retrieval processes, impression formation, the use of
heuristic vs. analytic processing strategies, the role of affect in
information processing, and self-esteem maintenance--has
implications for this important social phenomenon.
This volume's target article brings together the research of Galen
Bodenhausen, Neil Macrae, and others within a theoretical framework
that accounts for the processes that underlie both the activation
of stereotypes and attempts to suppress their influence. They
consider several stages of processing, including:
*the categorization of a stimulus person;
*the influence of this categorization on the interpretation of
information about the stimulus person; and
*the social judgments and behavioral decisions that are ultimately
made.
The stereotype activation and suppression mechanisms that the
target article authors consider operate at all of these stages.
Their conceptualization provides a framework within which the
interrelatedness of processing at these stages can be understood.
The 11th in the series, this volume includes companion articles
that help to refine and extend the target article's
conceptualization and make important theoretical contributions in
their own right. They are written by prominent researchers in
cognitive and social psychology, many of whom are active
contributors to research and theory on stereotyping. They address
the following topics:
* the role of power and control in stereotype-based information
processing;
* the influence of prejudice;
* self-regulatory processes;
* social categorization;
* the correction processes that result from perceptions of bias;
and
* the conceptualization of stereotypes themselves.
As Skinner argued so pointedly, the more we know about the
situational causes of psychological phenomena, the less need we
have for postulating internal conscious mediating processes to
explain those phenomena. Now, as the purview of social psychology
is precisely to discover those situational causes of thinking,
feeling, and acting in the real or implied presence of other
people, it is hard to escape the forecast that as knowledge
progresses regarding social psychological phenomena there will be
less of a role played by free will or conscious choice in
accounting for them. In other words, because of social psychology's
natural focus on the situational determinants of thinking, feeling,
and doing, it is inevitable that social psychological phenomena
increasingly will be found to be automatic in nature.
This 10th book in the series addresses automaticity and how it
relates to social behavior. The lead article, written by John
Bargh, argues that social psychology phenomena are essentially
automatic in nature, as opposed to being mediated by conscious
choice or reflection. Bargh maintains that an automatic mental
phenomenon is that which occurs reflexively whenever certain
triggering conditions are in place; when those conditions are
present, the process runs off autonomously, independently of
conscious guidance. In his lead article, he focuses on these
"preconscious" automatic processes that can be contrasted with
"postconscious" and "goal-dependent" forms of automaticity which
depend on more than the mere presence of environmental objects or
events. Because social psychology, like automaticity theory and
research, is also largely concerned with phenomena that occur
whenever certain situational features or factors are in place,
social psychology phenomena are essentially automatic. Students and
researchers in social and cognitive psychology will find this to be
a provocative addition to the series.
Until recently, most theory and research in social information
processing has focused attention on the cognitive activity that
underlies responses to stimulus information presented in the
immediate situation being investigated. In contrast, people's
thoughts outside the laboratory often concern life events that
either have occurred in the past or are likely to occur in the
future. Thoughts about such past and future events can be
spontaneous and, once elicited, can affect the ability to respond
effectively to the demands of the present situation with which one
is confronted.
This ninth volume in this series focuses on this type of cognitive
activity and examines both its determinants and consequences. The
lead article, by Leonard Martin and Abraham Tesser, develops a
theoretical formulation of ruminative thinking that conceptualizes
rumination as a class of conscious thought with a common
instrumental theme that recurs in the absence of immediate
environmental demands. The authors also give particular attention
to the ways in which perceptions of the consequences of past and
present events for long-range goal attainment affect both
controlled and uncontrolled thinking about these events. They also
examine the implications of their theory for the ability to
suppress unwanted thoughts, the interplay of emotion and cognition,
and the cognitive consequences or rumination for the performance of
daily life activities. The entire formulation integrates a number
of cognitive phenomena that are not usually considered within a
single theoretical framework.
The companion chapters, many written by the field's foremost
contributors to the literature on emotion and cognition, suggest
important refinements and extensions of the conceptualization
proposed in the target article. They also make important conceptual
contributions in their own right, covering topics that include the
role of mental models in cognitive functioning, the dynamics of
thought suppression and attentional inhibition, stress and coping,
personality correlates of ruminative thought, and attitudes and
persuasion. As a result, this volume makes a valuable contribution
to research and theory not only in social cognition but also in
numerous other areas.
Narrative forms of mental representation and their influence on
comprehension, communication and judgment, have rapidly become one
of the main foci of research and theory in not only psychology but
also other disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, and
anthropology. No one has been more responsible for the awakening of
interest in this area than Roger Schank and Bob Abelson. In their
target article, they argue that narrative forms of mental
representation, or "stories," are the basic ingredients of social
knowledge that play a fundamental role in the comprehension of
information conveyed in a social context, the storage of this
information in memory, and the later communication of it to others.
After explicating the cognitive processes that underlie the
construction of narratives and their use in comprehension, memory
and communication, the chapter authors consider the influence of
stories on a number of more specific phenomena, including political
judgment, marital relations and memory distortions that underlie
errors in eyewitness testimony.
The provocativeness of the target chapter is matched by that of
the companion articles, each of which not only provides an
important commentary on Schank and Abelson's conceptualization, but
also makes an important contribution to knowledge in its own right.
The diversity of perspectives reflected in these articles, whose
authors include researchers in linguistics, memory and
comprehension, social inference, cognitive development, social
judgment, close relationships, and social ecology, testifies to the
breadth of theoretical and empirical issues to which the target
chapter is potentially relevant. This volume is a timely and
important contribution to research and theory not only in social
cognition but in many other areas as well.
In this volume, Berkowitz develops the argument that experiential
and behavioral components of an emotional state are affected by
many processes: some are highly cognitive in nature; others are
automatic and involuntary. Cognitive and associative mechanisms
theoretically come into play at different times in the
emotion-cognition sequence. The model he proposes, therefore,
integrates theoretical positions that previously have been
artificially segregated in much of the emotion-cognition
literature.
The breadth of the implications of Berkowitz's theory is also
reflected in the diversity of this book's companion chapters.
Written by researchers whose work focuses on both social cognition
and emotion, these articles provide important insights and possible
extensions of the "cognitive-neoassociationistic" conceptualization
developed in the target article. Although each chapter is a
valuable contribution in its own right, this volume, taken as a
whole, is a timely and important contribution both to social
cognition and to research and theory on emotion per se.
In Volume 3, Eliot R. Smith of Purdue University proposes that
social cognition theorists have placed excessive emphasis on the
role of schemata, prototypes, and various other types of
abstractions. This has affected both the methodologies they use and
the type of theories they construct. What has not been adequately
appreciated is the storage and retrieval of specific episodes,
especially those with idiosyncratic features. This volume s
designed as a required text for those studying personality,
experimental and consumer psychology, cognitive science, and
communications.
If anyone deserves the title "father of social cognition," it is
William J. McGuire who, along with his wife and colleague Claire V.
McGuire, has written the target article for this volume. The
culmination of many years of work, the article discusses their
highly developed theory of human thought systems, and establishes
many new directions for theoretical and empirical inquiry. Equally
important, however, are the chapters -- written from many different
theoretical and empirical perspectives -- that challenge various
assumptions underlying the McGuires' work. In addition to examining
implications not explicitly considered in the target article, these
contributions explore the new directions that future research and
theorizing might take.
In Volume 3, Eliot R. Smith of Purdue University proposes that
social cognition theorists have placed excessive emphasis on the
role of schemata, prototypes, and various other types of
abstractions. This has affected both the methodologies they use and
the type of theories they construct. What has not been adequately
appreciated is the storage and retrieval of specific episodes,
especially those with idiosyncratic features. This volume s
designed as a required text for those studying personality,
experimental and consumer psychology, cognitive science, and
communications.
The feedback model of self-regulation developed by the authors of
the lead article in this volume has been one of the most successful
theoretical formulations of regulatory processes to date. The range
of phenomena to which this framework potentially applies is evident
from its ability to incorporate implications of other
conceptualizations as diverse as catastrophe theory and dynamic
systems theory. The diversity of issues and approaches dealt with
by Carver and Scheier is matched by the companion articles, which
are written from perspectives ranging across developmental
psychology, cognitive science, clinical psychology, and
organizational decision making, as well as mainstream social
cognition.
The feedback model of self-regulation developed by the authors of
the lead article in this volume has been one of the most successful
theoretical formulations of regulatory processes to date. The range
of phenomena to which this framework potentially applies is evident
from its ability to incorporate implications of other
conceptualizations as diverse as catastrophe theory and dynamic
systems theory. The diversity of issues and approaches dealt with
by Carver and Scheier is matched by the companion articles, which
are written from perspectives ranging across developmental
psychology, cognitive science, clinical psychology, and
organizational decision making, as well as mainstream social
cognition.
If there is one topic on which we all are experts, it is ourselves.
Psychologists depend upon this expertise, as asking people
questions about themselves is an important means by which they
gather the data that provide much of the evidence for psychological
theory. Personal recollections play an important role in clinical
theorizing; people's thoughts, feelings, and beliefs provide the
principal data for attitudinal research; and judgments of one's
traits and descriptions of one's goals and motivations are
essential for the study of personality. Yet despite their long
dependence on self-report data, psychologists know very little
about this basic resource and the processes that govern it. In
spite of the importance of the self as a concept in psychology,
virtually no empirically-tested representational models of
self-knowledge can be found. Recently, however, several theoretical
accounts of the representation of self-knowledge have been
proposed. These models have been concerned primarily with the
factors underlying a particular type of self knowledge -- our trait
conceptions of ourselves. The models all share the starting
assumption that the source of our knowledge of the traits that
describe us is memory for our past behavior.
The lead article in this volume reviews the available models of
the processes underlying trait self-descriptiveness judgments.
Although these models appear quite different in their basic
representational assumptions, exemplar and abstraction models
sometimes are difficult to distinguish experimentally. Presenting a
series of studies using several new techniques which the authors
believe are effective for assessing whether people recruit specific
exemplars or abstract trait summaries when making trait judgments
about themselves, they conclude that specific behavioral exemplars
play a far smaller role in the representation of trait knowledge
than previously has been assumed. Finally, the limitations of
social cognition paradigms as methods for studying the
representation of long-term social knowledge are discussed, and the
implications of the research for both existing and future social
psychological research are explored.
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