During the 1980's a wealth of information was reported from field and laboratory experiments in order to validate andlor modify various aspects of the surface layer Monin-Obukhov (M-O) similarity theory for use over the sea, and to introduce and test new concepts related to high resolution flux magnitudes and variabilities. For example, data from various field experiments conducted on the North Sea, Lake Ontario, and the Atlantic experiments, among others, yielded information on the dependence of the flux coefficients on wave state. In all field projects, the usual criteria for satisfying M-O similarity were applied. The assumptions of stationarity and homogeneity was assumed to be relevant over both small and large scales. In addition, the properties of the outer layer were assumed to be "correlated" with properties of the surface layer. These assumptions generally required that data were averaged for spatial footprints representing scales greater than 25 km (or typically 30 minutes or longer for typical windspeeds). While more and more data became available over the years, and the technology applied was more reliable, robust, and durable, the flux coefficients and other turbulent parameters still exhibited significant unexplained scatter. Since the scatter did not show sufficient reduction over the years to meet customer needs, in spite of improved technology and heavy financial investments, one could only conclude that perhaps the use of similarity theory contained too many simplifications when applied to environments which were more complicated than previously thought.

The proceedings of the joint BMB 15 and ECSA 27 Symposium provides the reader with some of the advances in the study of biology, ecology, and physical and biochemical modelling of enclosed or semi-enclosed marine, brackish and estuarine systems (the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, the White Sea, the Black Sea, and the Ionian Sea). The book covers a wide range of topics in this field, including hydrography and modelling, eutrophication, environmental gradients, pelagic and benthic communities, introduced species and case studies of environmental impact. This volume of 28 papers summarizes current knowledge on the broad-scale topics of enclosed and semi-enclosed marine systems, and should be of interest to scientists, students and administrators within the field of marine ecology, environmental impact control and conservation.

Modeling and prediction of oceanographic phenomena and climate is based on the integration of dynamic equations. The Equations of Oceanic Motions derives and systematically classifies the most common dynamic equations used in physical oceanography, from large scale thermohaline circulations to those governing small scale motions and turbulence. After establishing the basic dynamical equations that describe all oceanic motions, M??ller then derives approximate equations, emphasizing the assumptions made and physical processes eliminated. He distinguishes between geometric, thermodynamic and dynamic approximations and between the acoustic, gravity, vortical and temperature-salinity modes of motion. Basic concepts and formulae of equilibrium thermodynamics, vector and tensor calculus, curvilinear coordinate systems, and the kinematics of fluid motion and wave propagation are covered in appendices. Providing the basic theoretical background for graduate students and researchers of physical oceanography and climate science, this book will serve as both a comprehensive text and an essential reference.

This monograph creates a systematic interpretation of the theoretical and the most actual experimental aspects of the internal wave dynamics in the ocean. Firstly, it draws attention to the important physical effects from an oceanographical point of view which are presented in mathematical descriptions. Secondly, the book serves as an introduction to the range of modern ideas and the methods in the study of wave processes in dispersive media.
The book is meant for specialists in physics of the ocean, oceanography, geophysics, hydroacoustics.

In this book, the methodology of dynamical systems theory is applied to investigate the physics of the global ocean circulation. Topics include the dynamics of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, the stability of the thermohaline circulation and the El Nino/Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Tropical Pacific. On the other hand, the book also deals with the numerical methods for applying bifurcation analysis on large dimensional dynamical systems, with thousands or more degrees of freedom, which arise through discretization of ocean models. The novel approach in understanding the phenomena of climate variability is through a systematic analysis within a hierarchy of models using these techniques. In this way, a nice overview is obtained of the relations between the results of the different models within the hierarchy. Mechanistic description of the physics of the results is provided and, where possible, links with results of state-of-the-art models and observations are sought. The reader is expected to have a background in basic incompressible fluid dynamics and applied mathematics, although the level of the text is mixed and sometimes quite introductory. Each chapter is rather self-contained and many details of derivations are provided. The book is aimed at graduate students and researchers in meteorology, oceanography, and related fields who are interested in tackling fundamental problems in dynamical oceanography and climate dynamics.

This book is a direct result of the NATO Advanced Study Institute held in Banyuls-sur-mer, France, June 1985. The Institute had the same title as this book. It was held at Laboratoire Arago. Eighty lecturers and students from almost all NATO countries attended. The purpose was to review the state of the art of physical oceanographic numerical modelling including the parameterization of physical processes. This book represents a cross-section of the lectures presented at the ASI. It covers elementary mathematical aspects through large scale practical aspects of ocean circulation calculations. It does not encompass every facet of the science of oceanographic modelling. We have, however, captured most of the essence of mesoscale and large-scale ocean modelling for blue water and shallow seas. There have been considerable advances in modelling coastal circulation which are not included. The methods section does not include important material on phase and group velocity errors, selection of grid structures, advanced methods to conservation in highly nonlinear systems, inverse methods and other important ideas for modern ocean modelling. Hopefully, this book will provide a foundation of knowledge to support the growth of this emergent field of science. The NATO Advanced Study Institute was supported by many organi zations. The seed money, of course, was received from the NATO Science Commi ttee. Many national organizations provided travel money for partiCipants. In France, CNES, IFREMER, and CNRS provided funds to support the French participants. In the U. S."

This book is about marine seismic sources, their history, their physical principles and their deconvolution. It is particularly accented towards the physical aspects rather than the mathematical principles of signature generation in water as it is these aspects which the authors have found to be somewhat neglected. A huge amount of research has been carried out by both commercial and academic institutions over the years and the resulting literature is a little daunting, to say the least. In spite of this, the subject is intrinsically very simple and relies on a very few fundamental physical principles, a somewhat larger number of heuristic principles and a refreshingly small amount of blunderbuss mathematics. As such it is still one of those subjects in which the gifted practical engineer reigns supreme and from which many of the important advances have originated. In Chapter 1 of the book, the underlying physics and concepts are discussed, including pressure and wave propagation, bubble motion, virtual images and the factors determining choice of source. In marine reflection seismology, almost all of the seismic data acquired currently is done with either the airgun or the watergun, which rely on the expulsion of air and water respectively to generate acoustic energy. As a consequence, the discussion in this chapter is geared towards these two sources, as is much of the rest of the book.

Scientists investigating the interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere now believe that the drag coefficient, and the coefficients of heat transfer and moisture transfer at the sea surface, all increase with an intensification of the wind, reaching high values during a storm. This belief is based on the results of gradient and eddy correlation measurements in the air layer over the water, as weIl as on data concerning the effect of storms on the structure of the upper layer of the ocean and on the planetary atmospheric boundary layer. However, until recently it was impossible to explain just how the above coefficients depend on the wind velocity and to extrapolate this dependence into the region of hurricane velocities. Only by studying nonturbulent mechanisms of transfer, which play an important role dose to the surface of a stormy sea, and mechanisms of spray mediated transfer in particular, was it possible to proceed to a solution of this problem. This book presents the results of laboratory and field studies of the spray field in the air layer above the surface of a stormy sea. Since there is a dose correlation between the generation of spray and the breaking of wind waves, considerable attention is given to the analysis of data on the sea state during a storm. Su'ch data are of interest when solving a number of diverse theoretical and applied problems."

The phenomenon of evaporation in the natural environment is of interest in various diverse disciplines. This book is an attempt to present a coherent and organized introduction to theoretical concepts and relationships useful in analyzing this phe nomenon, and to give an outline of their history and their application. The main objective is to provide a better understanding of evaporation, and to connect some of the approaches and paradigms, that have been developed in different disciplines concerned with this phenomenon. The book is intended for professional scientists and engineers, who are active in hydrology, meteorology, agronomy, oceanography, climatology and related environ mental fields, and who wish to study prevailing concepts on evaporation. At the same time, I hope that the book will be useful to workers in fluid dynamics, who want to become acquainted with applications to an important and interesting natural phenomenon. As suggested in its subtitle, the book consists of three major parts. The first, consisting of Chapters I and 2, gives a general ouline of the problem and a history of the theories of evaporation from ancient times through the end of the nineteenth century. This history is far from exhaustive, but it sket hes the background and the ideas that led directly to the scientific revolution in Europe and, ultimately, to our present-day knowledge."

The text of the Persian poet Rum - - ?, written some eight centuries ago, and reproduced at the beginning of this book is still relevant to many of our pursuits of knowledge, not least of turbulence. The text illustrates the inability people have in seeing the whole thing, the 'big picture'. Everybody looks into the problem from his/her vi- point, and that leads to disagreement and controversy. If we could see the whole thing, our understanding would become complete and there would be no cont- versy. The turbulent motion of the atmosphere and oceans, at the heart of the observed general circulation, is undoubtedly very complex and dif?cult to understand in its entirety. Even 'bare' turbulence, without rotation and strati?cation whose effects are paramount in the atmosphere and oceans, still poses great fundamental ch- lenges for understanding after a century of research. Rotating strati?ed turbulence is a relatively new research topic. It is also far richer, exhibiting a host of distinct wave types interacting in a complicated and often subtle way with long-lived - herent structures such as jets or currents and vortices. All of this is tied together by basic ?uid-dynamical nonlinearity, and this gives rise to a multitude of phen- ena: spontaneous wave emission, wave-induced transport, both direct and inverse energy scale cascades, lateral and vertical anisotropy, fronts and transport barriers, anomalous transport in coherent vortices, and a very wide range of dynamical and thermodynamical instabilities.

The promontory of Gargano in the southern Adriatic Sea represents one of the most interesting Italian coastal zones subjected to tsunami hazard. Figure la gives the geographical map of Italy; with a box embracing the region of Gargano; details of that region are in turn sketched in Figure lb. Because of the incompleteness of the earthquake and tsunami catalogues, no reports on tsunamis in this area are available prior to 1600 AD. The Gargano events have been recently revised in order to establish their reliability and to attain the phenomenological reconstruction of the tsunamis (Guidoboni and Tinti, 1987 and 1988; Tinti et. al. , 1995). This work fits the general purpose of assessing tsunami hazard along the Italian coasts and represents a continuation of a previous study, where the first quantitative description of the 1627 tsunami from a numerical modeling viewpoint was performed (Tinti and Piatanesi, 1996). The earthquake took place on 30 July 1627 about mid-day and was followed by four large aftershocks. It claimed more than 5,000 victims and destroyed completely numerous villages in the northern Gargano area, with the most severe damage located between S. Severo and Lesina. The earthquake excited a tsunami with the most impressive effects in proximity of the Lesina Lake where the most reliable contemporary chronicles report about an initial sea water withdrawal of about 2 miles and a subsequent penetration inland.

A coastal sea area usually indicates a sea area between a continental shelf break with a water depth of about 200 m and the land shore. About 70% of global fish resources spend part of their life cycle in the coastal seas, which accounts for 90% of marine biomass yield. Freshwater and nutrients from the land have a great influence on the coastal seas, especially since more than half the human population lives within 100 km of a coast. Chemical reactions occur there rapidly between substances from the land as they encounter substances from the ocean. In terms of physics, a coastal sea acts as a boundary layer and kinetic energy is actively exchanged there. But if coastal oceanography were to be summed up in a single sentence, it would be the study that quantitatively makes clear the material transport in the coastal sea area'. Because the physical, chemical and biological processes relate to the material transport in the sea, it can be said the coastal oceanography is a genuinely interdisciplinary study. This book clarifies the quantitative material transport processes in the coastal sea area, mainly from a physical viewpoint.

Radar technology is increasingly being used to monitor the environment. This monograph provides a review of polarimetric radar techniques for remote sensing. The first four chapters cover the basics of mathematical, statistical modelling as well as physical modelling based on radiowave scattering theory. The subsequent eight chapters summarize applications of polarimetric radar monitoring for various types of earth environments, including vegetation and oceans. The last two chapters provide a summary of Western as well as former Soviet Union knowledge and the outlook. This monograph is of value to students, scientists and engineers involved in remote sensing development and applications in particular for environmental monitoring.

estimate tsunami potential by computing seismic moment. This system holds promise for a new generation of local tsunami warning systems. Shuto (Japan) described his conversion of !ida's definition of tsunami magnitude to local tsunami efforts. For example, i l = 2 would equal 4 m local wave height, which would destroy wooden houses and damage most fishing boats. SimOes (Portugal) reported on a seamount-based seismic system that was located in the tsunami source area for Portugal. In summary, the risk of tsunami hazard appears to be more widespread than the Pacific Ocean Basin. It appears that underwater slumps are an important component in tsunami generation. Finally, new technologies are emerging that would be used in a new generation of tsunami warning systems. These are exciting times for tsunami researchers. OBSERVATIONS TSUNAMI DISPERSION OBSERVED IN THE DEEP OCEAN F. I. GONZALEZl and Ye. A. KULIKOV2 Ipacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, NOAA 7600 Sand Point Way, N. E. , Seattle, W A 98115 USA 2State Oceanographic Institute Kropotkinskey per. 6 Moscow 119034, Russia CIS The amplitude and frequency modulation observed in bottom pressure records of the 6 March 1988 Alaskan Bight tsunami are shown to be due to dispersion as predicted by linear wave theory. The simple wave model developed for comparison with the data is also consistent with an important qualitative feature of the sea floor displacement pattern which is predicted by a seismic fault plane deformation model, i. e. the existence of a western-subsidence/eastern-uplift dipole.

An up-to-date summary of our understanding of the dynamics and thermodynamics of moist atmospheric convection, with a strong focus on recent developments in the field. The book also reviews ways in which moist convection may be parameterised in large-scale numerical models - a field in which there is still some controversy - and discusses the implications of convection for large-scale flow. Audience: The book is aimed at the graduate level and research meteorologists as well as scientists in other disciplines who need to know more about moist convection and its representation in numerical models.

Since the computing revolution, modelling has become the most important way in which we further our knowledge about how the sea moves and how the processes in the sea operate. The coast and the continental shelf are two of the most important areas of the sea to understand. Coastal and Shelf Sea Modelling is therefore very timely and important. In this text, modelling the processes that occur in the sea is motivated continually through real life examples. Sometimes these are incorporated naturally within the text, but there are also a number of case studies taken from the recent research literature. These will be particularly valuable to students as they are presented in a style more readily accessible than that found in a typical research journal. The motivation for modelling is care for the environment. The well publicised problem of global warming, the phenomenon of El Nino, more localised pollution scares caused by tanker accidents and even smaller scale coastal erosion caused by storms all provide motivation for modelling and all get coverage in this text. Particularly novel features of the book include a systematic treatment of the modelling process in a marine context, the inclusion of diffusion in some detail, ecosystems modelling and a brief foray into wave prediction. The final chapter provides the reader with the opportunity to do some modelling; there are many worked examples followed by exercises that readers can try themselves. All answers are provided. Throughout, the style is informal and the technicalities in term of mathematics are kept to a minimum. Coastal and Shelf Sea Modelling is particularly suitable for graduate marine and oceanographic modelling courses, but will also prove useful to coastal engineers and students at any level interested in the quantitative modelling of marine processes. It is stressed that only a minimal level of mathematics (first year calculus or less) is required; the style and content is introductory.

This volume has grown from an Autumn School about "Analysis of Climat Variability - Applications of Statistical techniques" on Elba in November 1993. We have included those lectures which referred explicitly to appli cations of statistical techniques in climate science, since we felt that general descriptions of statistical methods, both at the introductory and at advanced level, are already available. We tried to stress the application side, discussing many examples dealing with the analysis of observed data and with the eval uation of model results (Parts I and II). Some effort is also devoted to the treatment of various techniques of pattern analysis (Part III). Methods like teleconnections, EOF, SSA, CCA and POP are becoming routine tools for the climate researcher and it is probably important for graduate students to be exposed to them early in their academic career in a hopefully clear and concise way. A short subject index is included at the end of the volume to assist the reader in the search of selected topics. Rather than attempting to reference every possible occurrence of some topic we have preferred to indicate the page where that topic is more extensively discussed. The Autumn School was part of the training and education activities of the European Programme on Climatology and Natural Hazards (EPOCH), and is continued under the subsequent research programme (ENVIRONMENT 1990-1994). It aimed at students in general, taking first and second year courses at the graduate level."

This book presents an up-to-date analysis of ocean-atmosphere interaction. Well known experts examine diverse subjects such as ocean surface waves, air-sea exchange processes, ocean surface mixed layer, water-mass formation, as well as general circulation of the oceans, El Nino and Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and the deep-ocean circulation. Other areas described are basic dynamics, data analysis techniques, numerical modelling, and remote sensing.

This book is primarily aimed at graduate and senior undergraduate courses in the area of ocean-atmosphere research.

Uncertainty for Everyone The one thing that is certain about the world is that the world is uncertain. I have here, the question that apart of the matter, living matter, has to resolve in each and every one of its moments of existance. The environment of a living being is apart of the living being where it turns out, the rest of the living beings live. This is the drama of life on earth. Every living individual debates with his environment, exchanging matter, energy and information in the hope of staying alive, the same as all living beings who share that same environment. The adven ture of a living being (of all living beings ) is to maintain reasonable independ ence in face ofthe fluctuations ofuncertainty within the environment. The range of restrictions and mutual relationships is colossal. How is the tran seendental pretension of staying alive regulated? There is an equation imposed by the laws ofthermodynamics and the mathematical theory ofinformation about the interaction ofa living being with his environment which we could state like this: The complexity 01 a living individual plus his capacity for anticipation in re spect to his environment is identical to the uncertainty of the environmentplus the capacity of that living being to change the environment."

Radioecology in Northern Euroepean Seas summarizes an extensive body of literature on the oceanographic and biological conditions involved in the transfer and accumulation of radionuclides in marine sediment and biota of the Northern European seas. Much of the information has been derived through many decades of investigation carried out by the Murmansk Marine Biological Institute. This book presents the original works, augmented and complemented by work conducted by other institutes during the nuclear era. The synthesis of this extensive body of information forms the basis of a new methodological and theoretical framework describing radionuclide bioaccumulation by marine invertebrate and vertebrate animals, paying special attention to marine food webs leading to humans.

Annals of natural disasters have always caused common interest. Scientists and specialists of various domains, teachers, students, post-graduates, journalists .. and merely inquisitive can find useful and didactic information in such annals~ Sad experience of the natural disasters endured gives very important material for humanity. It allows us not only to understand better the phenomenon itself, but also to prepare ourselves for future cataclysms, which our "Mother-Nature" is so rich in. The book by Sergey Soloviev and a group of his collaborators represents a detailed description of tsunami waves and accompanying phenomena in the Mediterranean Sea over a period of approximately four thousand years. Sergey Soloviev, the founder and recognised leader of the Russian scientific school of tsunami researchers, was unable to see the publication of this book, passing away on March 9, 1994. However, his ample experience in investigation and systematisation of tsunami waves for the Pacific area [Soloviev and Go, 1974, 1975; Soloviev, Go and Kim, 1986] has been widely used in compiling this book. The Mediterranean coasts are the cradle of civilisation. Written accounts of past disasters in this region of the Earth are rather numerous and highly reliable. Therefore the results of the tsunami study in the Mediterranean Sea are of specific value both for the scientific community and for humanity at large.

The study of sea waves has always been in the focus of mankind's atten tion. This is attributed not only to a desire to understand the behaviour in seas and oceans, but also, it has some practical necessity. Developing up-to date wind wave numerical methods requires detailed mathematical modelling, starting with wave generation, development, propagation and transformation on the surface in different water areas under quasi-stationary conditions, up to a synthesis of climatic features observed under different wave generation conditions in oceans, sea or coastal areas. The present monograph considers wind waves in terms of the most general formulation of the problem as a probable hydrodynamic process with wide spatial variability. It ranges between the global scale of the oceans, whose typical size is comparable with the Earth's radius, to the regional and local scales of the seas, including water areas limited in space with significant current or depth gradients in coastal zones, where waves cease their existence having propagated tens of thousand miles."

A wide variety of problems are associated with the flow of shallow water, such as atmospheric flows, tides, storm surges, river and coastal flows, lake flows, tsunamis. Numerical simulation is an effective tool in solving them and a great variety of numerical methods are available. The first part of the book summarizes the basic physics of shallow-water flow needed to use numerical methods under various conditions. The second part gives an overview of possible numerical methods, together with their stability and accuracy properties as well as with an assessment of their performance under various conditions. This enables the reader to select a method for particular applications. Correct treatment of boundary conditions (often neglected) is emphasized. The major part of the book is about two-dimensional shallow-water equations but a discussion of the 3-D form is included. The book is intended for researchers and users of shallow-water models in oceanographic and meteorological institutes, hydraulic engineering and consulting. It also provides a major source of information for applied and numerical mathematicians.