Lorsqu'il n'est pas en notre pouvoir de discerner les plus vraies opinions, nous devons suivre les plus pro babies. -Rene Descartes When, in the early 1960's I undertook to covered, due to limitations imposed by a single study Arctic Ocean deep-sea cores, I did not volume. anticipate that 10 years later the climatic history Although not comprehensive, it is hoped that of the north polar basin would be still a matter of this book will provide an insight into the current debate. Although much new data have accumu- status of Arctic research and will also serve as a lated in various fields of Arctic geology and reference for investigators studying the Arctic and oceanography during the past decade, many ques- subarctic seas. tions remain to be answered. The paleo-oceanog- It is with pleasure that I acknowledge the raphy and the past atmospheric circulatory pat- following people for helping in various ways terns are still open to controversy, as are the during the preparation of this book: Philip E. structure and evolution of the crust beneath this Rosenberg, David M. Hopkins, C. Hans Nelson, ocean; furthermore, the origin and mode of dis- Horace G. Richards, Richard C. Allison, Peter persal of sediments is still not fully understood. Barnes, Edwin C. Buffington, Joe S. Creager, The current status of many of these problems is D. A. McManus, Joseph H. Kravitz, G. Vilks, discussed in the present volume. Thomas D. Hamilton, Ronald J. Echols, G. D.

Improvements in the design process as applied to ocean structures have received intense interest in recent years. Part of this interest stems from the growing realization that design on a purely deterministic basis is inadequate for structures sub ject to random loads, which are best described by statistical (or probability) methods. This book is an attempt to bridge the gap between present design practices and available analytical techni ques (which may be exploited to improve present procedures). The book itself is an outgrowth of a set of notes prepared for an intensive short course presented over the past three years by the Engineering Extension Division of the University of California at Los Angeles, California. The ensuing presentation is composed of four parts. The material begins with a review of the physical environment (winds, surface gravity water waves and currents) for which engineering type formulations are presented. Hindcasting and forecasting techniques using spectral concepts are included. Special problem areas are enumerated."

vi These categories seem to represent the basic breakdown by field of present-day research in this area. Though each paper has been classified into one of these categories (for conference organization purpose), many papers overlapped two or three areas. It is also interesting to note that not only are scientific results being communicated, but the latest techniques and the state-of-the-art tools of the trade (existing and in development) are also being presented. The forty-six papers presented at this conference represent the work of seventy scientists working at universities, government laboratories, and industrial laboratories in seven different countries . We would like to thank the contributors for their efforts and especially for their promptness in providing the editors with their final manuscripts. William A. Kuperman Finn B. Jensen La Spezia, Italy July 1980 CONTENTS GEOACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF MARINE SEDIMENTS Attenuation of Sound in Marine Sediments . * 1 J. M. Hovem Directivity and Radiation Impedance of a Transducer 15 Embedded in a Lossy Medium . ** ****** G. H. Ziehm Elastic Properties Related to Depth of Burial, Strontium Content and Age, and Diagenetic Stage in Pelagic Carbonate Sediments . . * * . * * * . 41 M. H. Manghnani, S. O. Schianger, and P. D. Milholland Application of Geophysical Methods 'and Equipment to Explore the Sea Bottom . ** ***. * 53 H. F. Weichart The Acoustic Response of Some Gas-Charged Sediments in the Northern Adriatic Sea * * * * . * * * * 73 A.

In this book, the methodology of dynamical systems theory is applied to investigate the physics of the global ocean circulation. Topics include the dynamics of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, the stability of the thermohaline circulation and the El Nino/Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Tropical Pacific. On the other hand, the book also deals with the numerical methods for applying bifurcation analysis on large dimensional dynamical systems, with thousands or more degrees of freedom, which arise through discretization of ocean models. The novel approach in understanding the phenomena of climate variability is through a systematic analysis within a hierarchy of models using these techniques. In this way, a nice overview is obtained of the relations between the results of the different models within the hierarchy. Mechanistic description of the physics of the results is provided and, where possible, links with results of state-of-the-art models and observations are sought. The reader is expected to have a background in basic incompressible fluid dynamics and applied mathematics, although the level of the text is mixed and sometimes quite introductory. Each chapter is rather self-contained and many details of derivations are provided. The book is aimed at graduate students and researchers in meteorology, oceanography, and related fields who are interested in tackling fundamental problems in dynamical oceanography and climate dynamics.

The international tsunami symposium convened by the Tsunami Commission of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics was held during May 25-28, 1981 at Send ai, Of un a to and Kamaishi, North East Honshu, Japan. This symposium was organized by the Japanese National Committee for the Organization of International Tsunami Symposium, 1981. The opening and closing ceremonies of the symposium were held at Sendai and Kamaishi, respectively, and eight sessions at Sendai and two sessions at Of una to were arranged. About 140 scientists and engineers including accompanied persons from ten countries participated to make the symposium a great success. In all, 55 papers were submitted prior to the opening of the symposium, of which 54 papers being orally presented, were arranged in ten sessions: Tsunami source and earthquake, warning system Tsunami waves and spectra Tsunami potential estimation Theoretical arguments on tsunami waves Tsunami generation and numerical simulation of historical tsunamis Harbor oscillations by long waves and tsunamis (1) Tsunami run up Mitigation of tsunami hazards and socio-economic effects Harbor oscillations by long waves and tsunamis (2) Historical study of tsunamis. Besides, two special popular lectures were provided for about 800 citizens in the Sanriku coastal area at Of una to Nokyo Kaikan, where the 1960 Chilean tsunami caused great destructive damages. The title of the first lecture was on the 1960 Chilean Earthquake and Tsunami by Dr.

In this paper differences and anomalies in west coast seasonal flow structures have been highlighted. In particular, it was emphasized that flow off Washington has significant differences from that of Oregon; namely, during summer, flow at mid-shelf is more poleward off Washington, and during winter, flow on the inner-shelf is more equatorward off Washington than off Oregon. The former result may be related to the poleward decrease in the longshelf wind stress; the latter result may be related to the presence of the Columbia River plume. Off southern California the near-surface flow over the shelf is more persistently equatorward than that off Washington . Conversely, the flow over the slope in the upper 100 m of the water column is more persistently poleward than that off washington. Also, the undercurrent structure, that is, a subsurface maximum, is maintained at least from summer to early winter off southern California (no data are yet available from spring), but only during summer and early fall off washington. We note that the seasonal cycle of vertical shear in the two locations is similar, although a reversal in sign sometimes occurs off Washington. ACKNOWLEDGEMZNTS This work was supported by the Department of Energy under Grant DE-FG05-85ER60333t4 and by the National Science Foundation under Grant OCE 86-01058#1. 175 From: Adriana Huyer, College of Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. On: Review and Commentary to paper POLEWARD FLOW NEAR TRE NORTRERH AND SOU'l'BERH BOONDARIES OF TRE U. S. WEST COAST, by Barbara Hickey.

The phenomenon of evaporation in the natural environment is of interest in various diverse disciplines. This book is an attempt to present a coherent and organized introduction to theoretical concepts and relationships useful in analyzing this phe nomenon, and to give an outline of their history and their application. The main objective is to provide a better understanding of evaporation, and to connect some of the approaches and paradigms, that have been developed in different disciplines concerned with this phenomenon. The book is intended for professional scientists and engineers, who are active in hydrology, meteorology, agronomy, oceanography, climatology and related environ mental fields, and who wish to study prevailing concepts on evaporation. At the same time, I hope that the book will be useful to workers in fluid dynamics, who want to become acquainted with applications to an important and interesting natural phenomenon. As suggested in its subtitle, the book consists of three major parts. The first, consisting of Chapters I and 2, gives a general ouline of the problem and a history of the theories of evaporation from ancient times through the end of the nineteenth century. This history is far from exhaustive, but it sket hes the background and the ideas that led directly to the scientific revolution in Europe and, ultimately, to our present-day knowledge."

During the 1980's a wealth of information was reported from field and laboratory experiments in order to validate andlor modify various aspects of the surface layer Monin-Obukhov (M-O) similarity theory for use over the sea, and to introduce and test new concepts related to high resolution flux magnitudes and variabilities. For example, data from various field experiments conducted on the North Sea, Lake Ontario, and the Atlantic experiments, among others, yielded information on the dependence of the flux coefficients on wave state. In all field projects, the usual criteria for satisfying M-O similarity were applied. The assumptions of stationarity and homogeneity was assumed to be relevant over both small and large scales. In addition, the properties of the outer layer were assumed to be "correlated" with properties of the surface layer. These assumptions generally required that data were averaged for spatial footprints representing scales greater than 25 km (or typically 30 minutes or longer for typical windspeeds). While more and more data became available over the years, and the technology applied was more reliable, robust, and durable, the flux coefficients and other turbulent parameters still exhibited significant unexplained scatter. Since the scatter did not show sufficient reduction over the years to meet customer needs, in spite of improved technology and heavy financial investments, one could only conclude that perhaps the use of similarity theory contained too many simplifications when applied to environments which were more complicated than previously thought.

estimate tsunami potential by computing seismic moment. This system holds promise for a new generation of local tsunami warning systems. Shuto (Japan) described his conversion of !ida's definition of tsunami magnitude to local tsunami efforts. For example, i l = 2 would equal 4 m local wave height, which would destroy wooden houses and damage most fishing boats. SimOes (Portugal) reported on a seamount-based seismic system that was located in the tsunami source area for Portugal. In summary, the risk of tsunami hazard appears to be more widespread than the Pacific Ocean Basin. It appears that underwater slumps are an important component in tsunami generation. Finally, new technologies are emerging that would be used in a new generation of tsunami warning systems. These are exciting times for tsunami researchers. OBSERVATIONS TSUNAMI DISPERSION OBSERVED IN THE DEEP OCEAN F. I. GONZALEZl and Ye. A. KULIKOV2 Ipacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, NOAA 7600 Sand Point Way, N. E. , Seattle, W A 98115 USA 2State Oceanographic Institute Kropotkinskey per. 6 Moscow 119034, Russia CIS The amplitude and frequency modulation observed in bottom pressure records of the 6 March 1988 Alaskan Bight tsunami are shown to be due to dispersion as predicted by linear wave theory. The simple wave model developed for comparison with the data is also consistent with an important qualitative feature of the sea floor displacement pattern which is predicted by a seismic fault plane deformation model, i. e. the existence of a western-subsidence/eastern-uplift dipole.

The era of the exploration of the World Ocean is not yet over: some areas still lack an adequate number of observations. The relationships between the physical, chemical and biological processes, which sustain the life on this planet, are not yet fully understood. In short, knowledge of the oceans is still far from satisfactory. This book covers an important period in the study of one of the last investigated areas of the World Ocean: the Ross Sea, Antarctica. During the 1990s, long-term experiments were conducted in this area as part of the Climatic Long-term Interaction for the Mass balance in Antarctica (CLIMA) project of the Italian National Programme for Antarctic Research (PNRA), providing a wealth of oceanographic information. This book is an outcome of the CLIMA field obser vations and international collaborations with the most important programmes in the Ross Sea-Southern Ocean area. It contributes to the st ldies of the spatial and temporal variability of Ross Sea water masses and circulation and their relation ship with the Southern Ocean circulation. A comprehensive review of historical data is offered, and new data sets are analysed. The studies presented in this book show that much progress has been achieved during the last decade, but large gaps in our understanding of the physical processes in the Ross Sea are still to be filled. However, these studies contribute significantly to the investigation of some specific aspects regarding the circula tion of the main water masses."

During the Conference on Air-Sea Interaction in January 1986, it was suggested to me by David Larner of Reidel Press that it may be timely for an updated compendium of air-sea interaction theory to be organized, developed, and published. Many new results were emerging at the time, i.e., results from the MARSEN, MASEX, MILDEX, and TOWARD field projects (among others) were in the process of being reported and/or published. Further, a series of new experiments such as FASINEX and HEXOS were soon to be conducted in which new strides in our knowledge of air-sea fluxes would be made. During the year following the discussions with David Larner, it became apparent that many of the advances in air-sea interaction theory during the 1970s and 1980s were associated with sponsor investments in satellite oceanography and, in particular, remote sensing research. Since ocean surface remote sensing, e.g., scatterometry and SAR, requires intimate knowledge of ocean surface dynamics, advances in remote sensing capabilities required coordinated research in air-sea fluxes, wave state, scattering theory, sensor design, and data exploitation using environmental models. Based on this interplay of disciplines, it was decided that this book be devoted to air sea interaction and remote sensing as multi-disciplinary activities.

In December 1994 Professor Enok Palm celebrated his 70th birthday and retired after more than forty years of service at the University of Oslo. In view of his outstanding achievements as teacher and scientist a symposium entitled "Waves and Nonlinear Processes in Hydrodynamics" was held in his honour from the 17th to the 19th November 1994 in the locations of The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters in Oslo. The topics of the symposium were chosen to cover Enok's broad range of scientific work, interests and accomplishments: Marine hydrodynamics, nonlinear wave theory, nonlinear stability, thermal convection and geophys ical fluid dynamics, starting with Enok's present activity, ending with the field where he began his career. This order was followed in the symposium program. The symposium had two opening lectures. The first looked back on the history of hydrodynamic research at the University of Oslo. The second focused on applications of hydrodynamics in the offshore industry today.

Uncertainty for Everyone The one thing that is certain about the world is that the world is uncertain. I have here, the question that apart of the matter, living matter, has to resolve in each and every one of its moments of existance. The environment of a living being is apart of the living being where it turns out, the rest of the living beings live. This is the drama of life on earth. Every living individual debates with his environment, exchanging matter, energy and information in the hope of staying alive, the same as all living beings who share that same environment. The adven ture of a living being (of all living beings ) is to maintain reasonable independ ence in face ofthe fluctuations ofuncertainty within the environment. The range of restrictions and mutual relationships is colossal. How is the tran seendental pretension of staying alive regulated? There is an equation imposed by the laws ofthermodynamics and the mathematical theory ofinformation about the interaction ofa living being with his environment which we could state like this: The complexity 01 a living individual plus his capacity for anticipation in re spect to his environment is identical to the uncertainty of the environmentplus the capacity of that living being to change the environment."

Inverse problems have a long history in acoustics, optics, electromagnetics and geophysics, but only recently have the signals provided by ocean acoustic sensors become numerous and sophisticated enough to allow for realistic identification of the ocean parameters. Acoustic signals propagating for long distances in the water column and reflections of underwater sound from the ocean boundaries provide novel problems of interpretation and inversion. The chapters in this volume discuss some of the contemporary aspects of these problems. They provide recent and useful results for bottom recognition, inverse scattering in acoustic wave guides, and ocean acoustic tomography, as well as a discussion of some of the new algorithms, such as those related to matched-field processing, that have recently been used for inverting experimental data. Each chapter is by a noted expert in the field and represents the state of the art. The chapters have all been edited to provide a uniform format and level of presentation.

Over the past decade the scientific activities of the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS), which focuses on the role of the oceans in controlling climate change via the transport and storage of greenhouse gases and organic matter, have led to an increased interest in the study of the biogeochemistry of organic matter. There is also a growing interest in global climate fluctuations. This, and the need for a precise assessment of the dynamics of carbon and other bio-elements, has led to a demand for an improved understanding of biogeochemical processes and the chemical characteristics of both particulate and dissolved organic matter in the ocean. A large amount of proxy data has been published describing the changes of the oceanic environment, but qualitative and quantitative estimates of the vertical flux of (proxy) organic compounds have not been well documented. There is thus an urgent need to pursue this line of study and, to this end, this book starts with several papers dealing with the primary production of organic matter in the upper ocean. Thereafter, the book goes on to follow the flux and characterization of particulate organic matter, discussed in relation to the primary production in the euphotic zone and resuspension in the deep waters, including the vertical flux of proxy organic compounds. It goes on to explain the decomposition and transformation of organic matter in the ocean environment due to photochemical and biological agents, and the reactivity of bulk and specific organic compounds, including the air-sea interaction of biogenic gases. The 22 papers in the book reflect the interests of JGOFS and will thus serve as a valuable reference source for future biogeochemical investigations of both bio-elements and organic matter in seawater, clarifying the role of the ocean in global climate change.

Since the computing revolution, modelling has become the most important way in which we further our knowledge about how the sea moves and how the processes in the sea operate. The coast and the continental shelf are two of the most important areas of the sea to understand. Coastal and Shelf Sea Modelling is therefore very timely and important. In this text, modelling the processes that occur in the sea is motivated continually through real life examples. Sometimes these are incorporated naturally within the text, but there are also a number of case studies taken from the recent research literature. These will be particularly valuable to students as they are presented in a style more readily accessible than that found in a typical research journal. The motivation for modelling is care for the environment. The well publicised problem of global warming, the phenomenon of El Nino, more localised pollution scares caused by tanker accidents and even smaller scale coastal erosion caused by storms all provide motivation for modelling and all get coverage in this text. Particularly novel features of the book include a systematic treatment of the modelling process in a marine context, the inclusion of diffusion in some detail, ecosystems modelling and a brief foray into wave prediction. The final chapter provides the reader with the opportunity to do some modelling; there are many worked examples followed by exercises that readers can try themselves. All answers are provided. Throughout, the style is informal and the technicalities in term of mathematics are kept to a minimum. Coastal and Shelf Sea Modelling is particularly suitable for graduate marine and oceanographic modelling courses, but will also prove useful to coastal engineers and students at any level interested in the quantitative modelling of marine processes. It is stressed that only a minimal level of mathematics (first year calculus or less) is required; the style and content is introductory.

The Antarctic represents the last of the world's still unexplored continents. Since 1985, Italy has sent 10 expeditions to this region, three of those have been exclusively devoted to research on the marine ecology of the Ross Sea region. This volume presents a global picture of this research. It includes contributions on water mass characteristics, particulate organic matter and nutrient utilization, and physiological aspects of primary production. Further topics are zooplankton, krill and top predator interactions in relation to physical and biological parameters, ecological features of coastal fish communities and the spatio-temporal variability of benthic biocenoses.

Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Durham, New Hampshire, U.S.A., July 19-30, 1982

Turbulence theory is one of the most intriguing parts of fluid mechanics and many outstanding scientists have tried to apply their knowledge to the development of the theory and to offer useful recommendations for solution of some practical problems. In this monograph the author attempts to integrate many specific approaches into the unified theory. The basic premise is the simple idea that a small eddy, that is an element of turbulent meso-structure, possesses its own dynamics as an object rotating with its own spin velocity and obeying the Newton dynamics of a finite body. A number of such eddies fills a coordinate cell, and the angular momentum balance has to be formulated for this spatial cell. If the cell coincides with a finite difference element at a numerical calculation and if the external length scale is large, this elementary volume can be considered as a differential one and a continuum parameterization has to be used. Nontrivial angular balance is a consequence of the asymmetrical Reynolds stress action at the oriented sides of an elementary volume. At first glance, the averaged dyad of velocity components is symmetrical, == However, if averaging is performed over the plane with normal nj, the principle of commutation is lost. As a result, the stress tensor asymmetry j is determined by other factors that participate in the angular momentum balance. This is the only possibility to determine a stress in engineering."

This multifaceted study explores new directions for plate tectonic research, especially as a guide for future geodynamic modelling of the earth. In particular, it equips readers with a plate-tectonic toolbox (with derivations and ANSI-C code) for applications and reconstruction analysis, including new continuous calculation methods. Pilger's Geokinematics shows how to apply these tools to Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic kinematics, with a focus on hotspot reference frames, and for empirical analysis of continental stress histories, including fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs. Supported by solid arguments and data, the book integrates theoretical developments of expanded plate kinematic theory and an ensemble of critical observations into a grand model, with the new concept of mesoplates playing a key role.

This study analyzes carbon-cycle conditions controlling the state of the Arctic ecosystem and their seasonal variations. Territory covered includes the Barents, White, Kara, Laptev, East-Siberian and Chukchi Seas, considering inter-correlations between sources of organic carbon, their fluxes, recycling and burial in bottom sediments. All biological communities (phythoplankton, macrophythobenthos, microphythobentos, bacterioplankton, zooplankton and zoobenthos) are taken into account regarding their participation in the carbon cycle.

Microbial systems in extreme environments and in the deep biosphere may be analogous to potential life on other planetary bodies and hence may be used to investigate the possibilities of extraterrestrial life. This book examines the mode and nature of links between geological processes and microbial activities and their significance for the origin and evolution of life on the Earth and possibly on other planets. This is a truly interdisciplinary science with societal relevance.

Klaus-Peter Schwarz, lAG President The University of Calgary The Scientific Assembly of the International Association of Geodesy (lAG) was held from September 3 to 9, 1997 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in conjunction with the 18th Brazilean Congress of Carthography. This was the first time that one ofthe major lAG meetings took place in Brazil. It provided an opportunity to showcase the progress of geodetic work in South America through campaigns such as SIRGAS. It also provided an opportunity for a large group of international experts to present the state of the art in ge- odesy and geodynamis and to interact with their hosts on possibilities of future coopera- tion. For the lAG, it continued a trend, started in Beijing four years ago, to hold major geodetic meetings outside of Europe and North America. The International Geoid School which was held in Sao Paulo following this meeting showed another facet of this grow- ing internationalization ofIAG activities and services. The scientific program of the meeting consisted of three symposia and two special ses- sions, namely Symposium 1 : Advances in Positioning and Reference Frames Symposium 2: Gravity and Geoid Symposium 3: Geodynamics Special Session 1: lAG Services Special Session 2: Geodesy in Antartica. Papers presented at the first symposium are published in volume 1 of these proceedings, while papers of symposia 2 and 3 as well as special session 2 are contained in volume 2. Papers presented at special session 1 will be published separately.

One of the basic concepts of ocean biogeochemistry is that of an ocean with extremely active boundary zones and separation boundaries of extensive biochemical interactions. The areas of these zones are characterized by a sharp decrease of element migration intensity and consequently the decrease in their concentrations gave the boundaries for the naming of the geochemical barriers (Perelman, 1972). For the purposes of biogeo chemistry the most important ones are the boundaries of separation between river-sea, ocean-atmosphere, and water-ground (Lisitzin, 1983). The most complicated of them is the river-sea boundary, where the biogeochemical processes are the most active and complicated (Monin and Romankevich, 1979, 1984). The necessity of studying organic matter in rivers, mouth regions and adjoining sea aquatories has been repeatedly pointed out by v.I. Vernadsky (1934, 1960) who noted both the importance of registration of solid and liquid run-off of rivers, coming into the sea, and "the quality and the character of those elements, which are washed-down into the sea", emphasizing that "wash-down of organic substances into the sea is of great value". The interest in studying organic matter in natural waters, including river and sea waters, has grown considerably over the last 30 years. During this period essential material was collected on the content and composition of organic matter in various types of river waters of the USSR, and this was published in papers by B.A Scopintzev, AD. Semenov, M.V.