The basis of Chinese religious culture, and with that many aspects
of daily life, was the threat and fear of demonic attacks. These
were inherently violent and could only be counteracted by violence
as well - even if this reactive violence was masked by euphemisms
such as execution, expulsion, exorcisms and so on. At the same
time, violence was a crucial dimension of the maintenance of norms
and values, for instance in sworn agreements or in beliefs about
underworld punishment. Violence was also an essential aspect of
expressing respect through sacrificial gifts of meat (and in an
earlier stage of Chinese culture also human flesh) and through a
culture of auto-mutilation and ritual suicide. At the same time,
conventional indigenous terms for violence such as bao were not
used for most of these practices since they were not experienced as
such, but rather justified as positive uses of physical force.
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