oil is the lifeblood of the World's economy. It was a critical element in two World Wars and in the Cold War, and, as recent events in the Middle East confirm, people are willing to fight for it. The cheap energy it provides, especially for transport and agriculture, was one of the main factors that made possible the economic prosperity and growth that the World has enjoyed for the past fifty years and more. People rely on it everywhere, and in many forms, and they have become so accustomed to its ready availability that they take it for granted. To conceive of a world without traffic jams and airliners is unthinkable, and while not so obvious, oil lies behind every supermarket shelf, fuelling the tractor that ploughs the field and the delivery van that brings the consumer his food. Yet everyone knows that it is a finite and irreplaceable commodity, formed long ago in the geological past. What no one knows is just how finite it is. This book is an effort to try to answer that question : not in detail, but at least in orders of magnitude. More useful than the figures themselves is the discussion of the elements involved in addressing the subject. While it is impossible to predict the precise pattern of future production, which will be affected by many unforeseeable factors, one can at least begin to think in terms of resource constraint instead of an ever expanding supply of oil.

The first North Sea Oil and Gas Conference was held in Trondheim in 1985 as a part of the Norwegian Institute of Technology's 75th anniversary celebration. Favourable reactions from the delegates prompted the Organizing Committee to rerun the event in 1989. The response was again very encourag ing and led the Committee to conclude that the conference should be held on a regular basis so long as there is a demand for this type of gathering. The third conference in the series was held in 1992. The objectives of the conference series are fourfold: To bring together those who are engaged in various geoscientific and reservoir engineering aspects of North Sea oil and gas reservoirs in one forum; to demonstrate wherever possible the interdependence of the various disciplines and specializations; to promote innovative, synergetic approaches to research and development programmes aimed at North Sea conditions; and to reflect current trends in the reservoir sciences. The conference format has remained unchanged throughout the series. The present conference contained four field reviews by Amoco, Conoco, NAM Velsen, and Statoil, and four keynotes addresses by Professor R. Ewing, Dr. G. Geehan, Dr. D. Johnston, and Dr. F. Santarelli. Twenty-seven research papers were selected from the response to a Call for Papers in accordance with the aims of the conference and their technical contents.

Estimating abundance of wildlife is an essential component of a wildlife research program, and a prerequisite for sound management. With the exception of a few highly mathematical volumes, there are no books on the subject for use by students and field workers. Also, the various techniques for counting animals found in scientific journals are often not accessible to African managers. The unavailability of the diverse literature necessitated the production of a textbook or field manual that covers the ground. The book compiles the most relevant techniques for counting African mammals, illustrated with many examples from the field. It provides guidelines for selecting the appropriate methodology for a range of conditions commonly found in the field, in terms of different animal species, habitat types, and management objectives.

Mineral deposits are non-renewable; they do not grow in the ground. Sustainable use of finite mineral wealth requires that revenues from mineral extraction be invested in renewable wealth, education and infrastructure, machines and other production equipment, or in financial assets. Different countries, states and provinces have done so with a varying degree of success. Investing for Sustainability: The Management of Mineral Wealth highlights mineral rents investment funds in Norway, Alaska and Alberta, all of which derive considerable revenues from the production of petroleum bound to diminish over time. The book examines the institutional and political framework in which these funds are embedded and how successfully they have been used for making non-renewable petroleum wealth permanent. Investing for Sustainability: The Management of Mineral Wealth begins with a discussion of the elusive concept of sustainability. New technology and substitution has made a resource like peat obsolete long before it became exhausted physically. Jevons' famous book "The Coal Question" is discussed at some length as a case of unwarranted concern about the depletion of resources. The book also highlights other cases which strike a less happy note. Nauru, one of the smallest sovereign states in the world, has for decades lived off phosphate resources that are now running out. Nauru attempted to make its phosphate wealth permanent through investment funds but failed. Despite its success with its Permanent Fund, less of the oil wealth of Alaska has been made permanent than would appear warranted, and the same is true of Alberta and Norway. Judging from the experiences of the three funds, and the current political debate in Norway, Investing for Sustainability: The Management of Mineral Wealth suggests that it is essential that the citizenry at large benefit directly from mineral rents investment funds if they are to succeed.

The reasons for writing this book are very simple. We use and teach com puter aided techniques of mathematical simulation and of pattern recogni tion. Life would be much simpler if we had a suitable text book with methods and computer programmes which we could keep referring to. Therefore, we have presented here material that is essential for mathematical modelling of some complex geological situations, with which earth scientists are often confronted. The reader is introduced not only to the essentials of computer modelling, data analysis and pattern recognition, but is also made familiar with the basic understanding with which they can plunge into when solving related and more complex problems. This book first makes a case for seismic stratigraphy and then for pattern recognition. Chapter 1 provides an extensive review of applications of pattern recognition methods in oil exploration. Simulation procedures are presented with examples that are fairly simple to understand and easy to use on the computer. Several geological situations can be formulated and simulated using the Monte Carlo method. The binary lithologic sequences, discussed in Chapter 2, consist of alternating layers of any two of sand, shale and coal."

Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop, Digne, France, September 16-22, 1988

In this text, attention is focused mainly on those literature is accessible, however, it is to be expected countries in western Africa lying south of the Sahara, that teachers and lecturers will know of it and will be that is, between about SON and 15 DegreesN, and westward able to acquaint their students with it, where neces of about 15 DegreesE. Parts of the region as far north as sary. about 200N are considered from time to time, for A glossary of terms is provided at the end of the purposes of correlation and cQntinuity. The map on volume, and there is a summary at the beginning of p. xiii indicates the approximate extent of the cover each chapter. age. This book is dedicated to the many colleagues and The principal aim is to provide a broad view of students with whom we have worked in West Africa West African geology as a whole, for undergraduates and who have stimulated and encouraged our teach who are studying for honours degrees in geology and ing and research in various ways. We hope also that it may help the work of international organizations who already have an understanding of basic geologi cal principles. It is increasingly important that such as AGID, CIFEG and UNESCO to encourage the growing trend towards geological co-operation geologists working in this region should see it as made up of geological 'provinces' which transcend and correlation between different countries in West national boundaries. Africa.

Why another book about Ore Deposits? There are a number of factors which motivated us to write this text and which may provide an answer to this question. Firstly our colleagues are predominantly mining engineers and minerals processing technologists, which provides us with a different perspective of ore deposits from many academic geologists. Secondly we have found that most existing texts are either highly theoretical or merely descriptive: we have attempted to examine the practical implications of the geological setting and genetic models of particular ore deposit types. We have written the text primarily for undergraduates who are taking options in Economic Geology towards the end of a Degree Course in Geology. However, we hope that the text will also prove valuable to geologists working in the mining industry. The text is to a large extent based on a review of the existing literature up to the end of 1984. However, we have visited most of the mining districts cited in the text and have also corresponded extensively with geologists to extend our knowledge beyond the published literature. Nonetheless writing a text-book on Ore Deposits is a demanding task and it is inevitable that sins of both omission and commission have been committed. We would therefore welcome comments from readers which can be incorporated in future editions. RICHARD EDW ARDS KEITH ATKINSON Cmnhome School ( n\1illcs April 1985 Glossary Adit A horizontal, or near horizontal, passage from the surface into a mme.

Sedimentation and Tectonics in Rift Basins: Red Sea - Gulf of Aden presents new case studies and synthesises the results of recent research on the sedimentological evolution of the Red Sea - Gulf of Aden rift system. This rift basin is generally regarded as the best natural geological laboratory in the world in which to study the processes of rift formation. Uplift of the rift margins in an arid climate results in extensive three-dimensional exposures of pre- and syn-rift strata and associated structures. These serve as analogues for the understanding and hydrocarbon exploration of deeper buried rift-systems on continental margins such as the North Sea and the Atlantic margins. The Red Sea - Gulf of Aden rift is also exceptional in that its stratigraphy spans all stages from pre-rift environments, syn-rift continental to marine environments through the rift to drift transition to post-rift sea-floor spreading. The work is arranged in eight sections: following a review of the sedimentology and stratigraphy of rift basins, the magmatism and structural evolution of the Red Sea - Gulf of Aden rift is reviewed. Subsequently, new case studies are presented of the early rifting environment, syn-rift sedimentation, tectonics and diagenesis, evaporites and salt tectonics. Post-rift sediments of the axial trough are then discussed along with studies of reefs, coastal zone and shelf sediments, and the tectonic geomorphology of the rift margin escarpment. This work results from extensive new research in the rift basin largely carried out under collaborative research projects by European and Middle Eastern geologists. It will be an invaluable reference work for geoscientists in the hydrocarbon, groundwater and mineral extraction industries, as well as for researchers in university departments of earth sciences, mining and physical geography.

This text was originally written for use with the videotape program of the same title. Numbered video cassettes correspond to the following chapters of the book: Tape Chapter(s) Tape Chapter(s) 1 1-2. 2. 1 11 3. 4 2 2. 2. 2-2. 3 12 3. 5. 1-3. 5. 2 3 2. 4 13 3. 5. 3 4 2. 5-2. 6 14 3. 5. 4-3. 6. 3 5 2. 7-2. 8 15 3. 7-3. 7. 2 6 3 16 3. 8-4 7 3. 1 17 4. 1 8 3. 2-3. 2. 1 18 4. 2-4. 4 9 3. 2. 2-3. 2. 3 19 5 10 3. 3 Complete information about the videotape program, Seismic Exploration for Sandstone Reservoirs may be obtained from: IHRDC, 137 Newbury St. , Boston, MA 02116, (617) 536-0202. Acknowledgements Thanks are expressed to the authors, companies and professional associations who have allowed the use of their material in the course. The author and publisher are grateful for permission to reproduce material whose copyright belongs as follows: Figures: 2. 4-3 (Widess) SEG; 2. 4-4 (Prescott) Continental Oil Company; 3-1 (Le Blanc) AAPG; 3-2 (MacKenzie) AAPG; 3. 1-1 Seiscom Delta; 3. 1-3 (Schramm et al. ) AAPG; 3. 1-4 (Lamer et al. ) Western Geophysical Company; 3. 2. 2-2 Prakla Seismos; 3. 2. 2-3 (Leung et al. ) Amoco Europe; 3. 2. 2-4 (Newman et al. ) S&A Geophysical; 3. 2. 3-2 Seiscom Delta; 3. 3-1 (Taner) Seiscom Delta; 3.

This book accompanies a videotape program of the same name. The combined videotape and book, referred to as a module of instruction, was one of three prepared by IHRDC on a joint basis with Mobil Oil Corporation during 1980. The three modules, one each in geology, geophysics and petroleum engineering, were produced to determine whether this medium of instruction would provide an effective way of teaching recent graduates and those individuals changing specialties, "what they need to know, when they need to know it." The major observations Of the pilot production stage were that properly designed and properly used, video-assisted instruction is effective, effiCient, and convenient. With the confidence that this instructional medium provides one way for the interna tional petroleum industry to train young graduates in exploration and production, IHRDC sought financial and advisory support from a limited number Of companies to undertake the development of the BaSiC Technical Video Library for the E&P Specialist. To date the following companies have agreed to serve as Sponsors: Mobil, AGIP, ARAMCO, Cities Services, Dome Petroleum Ltd., Gulf, Phillips, Standard Oil of California/ Chevron, and Texaco."

In 1866 William P. Blake, professor of mineralogy, geology and mining at the College of California, parent to the University of California, Berkeley, prepared as a report to the State Board of Agriculture an "Annotated Catalog of the Principal Mineral Species Hitherto Recognized in California and the adjoining States and Territories. " Seventy-seven mineral species appeared on the list. It was the beginning of a series that became known as Minerals of California. This first catalog was followed in 1884 and 1886 by a list of 135 species compiled by H. G. Hanks, the first state mineralogist of California, and pub. lished in the fourth and sixth State Mining Bureau reports. Then beginning in 1914 with a volume prepared by A. S. Eakle, professor of mineralogy at the Uni versity of California, Berkeley, the Division of Mines and Geology published new editions in the series at approximately ten-year intervals. Author Year Mineral Species A. S. Eakle 1914 352 A. S. Eakle 1923 417 A. Pabst 1938 446 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1948 516 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1956 523 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1966 602 (For a more detailed review of the Minerals of California series, see I. Campbell, 1966, pp. 13-19. ) For over 100 years the series has served those who have a historic, scientific or economic interest in California minerals."

This volume contains the papers presented at the North European Margin Symposium which was held at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim from 9 to 11th May 1983. The idea for the meeting was conceived by the Geology and Geophysics Committee of the Norwegian Petroleum Society, in meetings consisting of R P F Hardman, J Freake, I Gausland, A M Spencer, R G Todd, F Aamodt, E Nysaether and G Kobjl,iSrnsen. The Trondheim meeting was planned and organized by an Organizing and Editing Subcommittee consisting of E Holter, 0 S Johnsen, A Ml,iSrk, E Nysaether, P Songstad, A M Spencer and A Spinnangr. There were 216 participants at the meeting in Trondheim and 34 papers were given, most of which were invited. The meeting was opened by Dr K S Heier, Director of the Norwegian Geological Survey and a concluding address was given by E Bergsager of the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, who talked about future exploration in Norway.

An accessible account of the ways in which the world's plant life affects the climate. It covers everything from tiny local microclimates created by plants to their effect on a global scale. If you ve ever wondered how vegetation can create clouds, haze and rain, or how plants have an impact on the composition of greenhouse gases, then this book is required reading."

This little book is different. It is written, primarily, for geologists, reservoir engineers, and log analysts. Why? Because today's seismic method is more than a tool for reconnaissance exploration, for finding structures; it has become a tool for studying the discovered reservoir-its extent, its barriers, its variations of thickness, and its trends of porosity. Today, the geophysicist, the geolog ist, the engineer, and the log analyst can do great things together. Because the book is not written primarily for geophysi cists, it can skip much of the "mechanics" of the seismic method. The reader who reaches the last page (bless him ) will not be able to practise the seismic method, but he will understand how the seismic method can help to solve his problems. It may also be of value to those practitioners of the seismic method-in the field or in the processing centre-who already know the mechanics of the method, but would like to take a broader view. 1 1 Seismics and Structure Of all the geophysical methods working from the surface, there is only one which is widely accepted for studies of individual petroleum reservoirs-the seismic reflection method. We would dearly love to have something better, but alas ... Reduced to its essentials, the method is this: we make a bang, and we listen for echoes."

Although considera bIe efforts are now being made to find new sources of energy, alI the experts are agreed that hydrocarbons will have to provide the greater part of our energy needs for a generation ahead. Exploration for and production of hydrocarbons therefore pose a serious problem for our future, as much for the quantitative satisfaction of our requirements as for our search for self-sufficiency in energy. As a direct result of improvements in technology throughout the world, geophysics has progressively enlarged its field of influence in the realms of exploration and production. But amongst the various geophysical methods available, seismic reflection has gradually become accepted as the basic tool of the oiI prospector. Reflection seismology has reached and consolidated this position because it has shown itself to be capable of adapting to the increasing complexity of the requirements of exploration. Initially directed towards geometric mapping of the sub-surface, it became the means of detection of structural traps in geotectonically quiescent regions, and thereafter in increasingly complex surroundings. It has enabled us to clothe the structural framework with a lithology, initially approximate, but becoming more and more precise, assisting the explorer to locate stratigraphic traps. Further developments enable us under favourable circumstances to estimate the quality of the deposits and to detect the presence of fluids and of their interfaces; it then becomes an unrivalled tool for the producer, both in the development of deposits and in the application of enhanced recovery methods.

Rock masses are initially stressed in their current in situ state of stress and to a lesser natural state. Whether one is interested in the extent on the monitoring of stress change. formation of geological structures (folds, faults, The subject of paleostresses is only briefly intrusions, etc. ), the stability of artificial struc discussed. tures (tunnels, caverns, mines, surface excava The last 30 years have seen a major advance our knowledge and understanding of rock tions, etc. ), or the stability of boreholes, a in the in situ or virgin stress field, stress. A large body of data is now available on knowledge of along with other rock mass properties, is the state of stress in the near surface of the needed in order to predict the response of rock Earth's crust (upper 3-4km of the crust). masses to the disturbance associated with those Various theories have been proposed regarding structures. Stress in rock is usually described the origin of in situ stresses and how gravity, within the context of continuum mechanics. It is tectonics, erosion, lateral straining, rock fabric, defined at a point and is represented by a glaciation and deglaciation, topography, curva second-order Cartesian tensor with six compo ture of the Earth and other active geological nents. Because of its definition, rock stress is an features and processes contribute to the current enigmatic and fictitious quantity creating chal in situ stress field."

In all the industries in which I do management consulting, each manager considers his own industry to be truly "unique. " Of course, each is different in some respects, and each has its own quirks and features. However, the similarities among in dustries far outweigh the differences. The critical dynamics and the management issues have a great deal in common. However, there are, I believe, two industries (or segments of industries) that have an important critical uniqueness that does distinguish them from the rest. One of these is the exploration for undiscovered natural resources, notably for oil and gas; the other is research. In these two in dustry segments, the competition is not nearly so much one firm against another as it is each firm against "nature," or-if you prefer-against the unknown. This uniqueness not only sets these two industry segments apart from the rest, it also helps us to see what they have in common with each other: - Pure scientific talent, ability, and genius have direct commercial value. - We do not have the zero sum game of competition in the market place. A discovery by one firm does not usually perceptably lessen the opportunity of a "competitor" for a discovery. On the contrary, a discovery by one firm usually increases the knowledge of the whole industry, increasing com petitors' opportunity for discovery. - We see the source of continuing life for the rest of the firm."

This book is written as a practical field manual to effective. Each geolOgist has to develop his/her be used by geologists engaged in mineral explo own techniques and will ultimately be judged on ration. It is also hoped that it will serve as a text results, not the process by which these results and reference for students in Applied Geology were reached. In mineral exploration, the only courses of universities and colleges. The book 'right' way of doing anything is the way that aims to outline some of the practical skills that locates ore in the quickest and most cost-effective turn the graduate geologist into an explo manner. It is preferable, however, for an individ rationist: . It is intended as a practical 'how to' ual to develop his/her own method of operation book, rather than as a text on geological or ore after having tried, and become aware of, those deposit theory. procedures which experience has shown to work An explorationist is a professional who search well and which are generally accepted in indus try as good exploration practice. es for ore bodies in a scientific and structured way. Although an awkward and artificial term, The chapters of the book approximately fol this is the only available word to describe the low the steps which a typical exploration pro totality of the skills which are needed to locate gramme would go through. In Chapter 1, the and define economic mineralization."

Discussing all aspects of offshore surveying in a single volume, this book provides all algorithms necessary to develop complete software suites, and gives a large number of quality control criteria. It is invaluable to professional surveyors, offshore engineers and geophysicists, providing them with a wealth of data in a single volume. It is also a valuable reference work for hydrographic surveyors, seismic navigators and operations geophysicists. This book brings together information on spheroids, datums, projections and binning; gives a complete listing of UKOOA P1/90 and P2/91 formats for data transfer; a field guide to the calibration of radio navigation systems and compasses, acoustic and laser measuring devices; GPS, including calibration, use and differential techniques; field manual for quality control of all aspects of offshore surveying; listing of typical specifications for inclusion in survey contracts; and a comprehensive glossary of relevant terms for offshore surveying.

Since the Arab oil embargo of 1974, it has been clear that the days of almost limitless quantities of low-cost energy have passed. In addition, ever worsening pollution due to fossil fuel consumption, for instance oil and chemical spills, strip mining, sulphur emission and accumulation of solid wastes, has, among other things, led to an increase of as much as 10% in the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere in this century. This has induced a warming trend through the 'greenhouse effect' which prevents infrared radiation from leaving it. Many people think the average planetary temperatures may rise by 4 DegreesC or so by 2050. This is probably true since Antarctic ice cores evidence indicates that, over the last 160000 years, ice ages coincided with reduced levels of carbon dioxide and warmer interglacial episodes with increased levels of the gas in the atmosphere. Consequently, such an elevation of temperature over such a relatively short span of time would have catastrophic results in terms of rising sea level and associated flooding of vast tracts of low-lying lands. Reducing the burning of fossil fuels makes sense on both economic and environmental grounds. One of the most attractive alternatives is geothermal resources, especially in developing countries, for instance in El Salvador where geothermal energy provides about a fifth of total installed electrical power already. In fact, by the middle 1980s, at least 121 geothermal power plants were operating worldwide, most being of the dry steam type.

Oil shales are broadly dermed as petroleum source rocks containing sufficiently high contents of organic matter (above ca 10-15 wt. %) to make utilisation a possibility. Like coal, the world's reserves of oil shales are vast being many times larger than those proven for crude oil. Indeed, some of the largest deposits occur in the USA and Europe where Estonia and Turkey have large reserves. The first recorded interest in oil shale retorting was an English patent in 1694 (Eele, Hancock and Porter, No. 330) which refers to distilling noyle from some kind of stone." The oil shale retorting industry dates back to the middle of the last century, notably Scotland, Estonia, France and Sweden in Europe. Indeed, my own Department at the University of Strathclyde has a historical link with James "Paraffin" Young, the founder of the Scottish oil shale industry who endowed a chair in Applied Chemistry. The growth of the oil industry saw the demise of the oil shale industry in most countries with the notable exception of Estonia, where kukersite has continued to be used for power generation and retorting. However, oil shale utilisation has attracted renewed attention since the early 1970s as a source of transport fuels and chemical feedstocks due to the the long term uncertainties over crude oil supplies.

In 1981 Chile's military government dictated a new Water Code that radically changed the country's previous water rights system by strengthening private property rights, favoring market incentives, and reducing state regulation. Against the Current: Privatization, Water Markets, and the State in Chile is the first empirical and interdisciplinary study of water markets in Chile, which is the leading international example of free market water policies. Against the Current: Privatization, Water Markets, and the State in Chile challenges the glowing reports given by neoliberals in Chile and the World Bank, showing that the results of this economic experiment have actually been rather mixed. Within the agricultural sector the Water Code has worked fairly well, although the market incentives to conserve water have been ineffective and water rights trading has been less active than expected. The Code's impact has been more negative at the level of river basins, where the institutional framework has revealed critical flaws in coordinating multiple water users and resolving conflicts. Against the Current: Privatization, Water Markets, and the State in Chile combines law, political economy, and geography to analyze the disadvantages, problems, and wider contexts of water markets. This book will appeal to everyone interested in property rights, market-friendly environmental policies, the political economy of sustainable development, and the intersection of economics with law and institutions.

In exploration seismology, data are acquired at multiple source and receiver posi tions along a profile line. These data are subsequently processed and interpreted. The primary result of this process is a subsurface image of the exploration target. As part of this procedure, additional information is also obtained about the subsurface material properties, e.g., seismic velocities. The methods that are employed in the acquisition and processing of exploration seismic data are internally consistent. That is, principally near vertical incidence seismic waves are generated, recorded and subsequently imaged. The data processing methods commonly used are based upon a small angle of incidence approximation, thus making the imaging problem tractable for existing data processing technology. Although tremendously successful, the limitations of this method are generally recognized. Current and future exploration goals will likely require the use of additional seismic waves, i.e., both compressional and shear precritical and postcritical reflections and refractions. Also, in addition to making better use of seismic travel times, recent efforts to directly incorporate seismic amplitude variations show that the approach may lead to a better understanding of subsurface rock properties. In response to more demanding exploration goals, recent data acquisition techniques have improved significantly by increasing the spatial aperture and incorporating a large number of closely spaced receivers. The need for better subsurface resolution in depth and position has encouraged the use of 240, 512, and even 1024 recorded data channels with receiver separations of 5 to 25 m."

Here is another contribution in the continuing series on Computer Methods in the Geosciences. As its title suggests, this volume will be of interest to explorational geochemists who want to analyze their own data on a personal computer (PC). To make it easy for the user, the programs and two trial data sets are provided on the accompanying diskettes. And, by supplying the diskettes, another first is accom plished for the series: instant involvement and interaction for the user. Although other books in the series have provided listings of computer pro grams, Exploration-Geochemical Data Analysis with the IBM PC is the first to supply diskettes. The diskettes, along with the instructions outlined in the text, eliminate the bother (and errors) of pu tting the programs in man ually. The suite of programs for handling and sorting data files; computing and displaying summary statistics; and working with logarithms, geochemical thresholds, and regression - will give geochemists a good repertoire for geochemical exploration data analysis. The diskettes are easy to use and have been tested thoroughly."