GOLD: History and Genesis of Deposits is the product of an effort by the Society of Economic Geologists to publish materials that will expand knowl edge concerning timely, specific topics important to the study of economic geology and to economic geologists. A volume on gold was selected for a general review-type publication because of the importance of the gold mining industry in the 1980s. The officers and council of the Society of Economic Geologists authorized the preparation of this book on gold in 1981, and Dr. Robert W. Boyle was selected as its author. Dr. Boyle has extensive experience in the study of gold deposits. He has an international reputation and a broad interest and understanding of the gold mining industry, the origin of gold deposits, and the history of gold as a metal and ore from prehistoric times to recent. Dr. Boyle uses important publications on gold deposits as source materials to document the various pathways of geological thought over time to introduce the reader to modern concepts. The book contains a wealth of information concerning gold."

Shallow Gas determination, prior to drilling, is carried out using 'Engineering Seismic' survey methods. Seismic acquisition data quality is fundamental in achieving this objective as both the data processing methods and interpretation accuracy are subject to the quality of the data obtained. The recent application of workstation based data analysis and interpretation has clearly demonstrated the importance of acquisition data quality on the ability to determine the risks of gas with a high level of confidence. The following pages summarise the 5 primary issues that influence acquisition data QC, suggests future trends and considers their potential impact. The primary issues covered in this paper are: A. Seismic B. Positioning C. QC Data Analysis D. Communications E. Personnel 90 SAFETY IN OFFSHORE DRll.LING FIELD QC ...................... PRIMARY COMPONENTS COMMERCIAL TECHNICAL 1 OPERATIONAL FIGURE 1 HYDROSEARCH The often complex influences of Technical, Commercial and Operational constraints on the acquisition of high quality data require careful management by the QC supervisor in order to achieve a successful seismic survey data set. The following pages only consider the Technical aspects of QC and assume that no Commercial or Operational restrictions are imposed in the achievement of optimum data quality. It is noted however, that such restrictions are frequently responsible for significant compromise in data coverage and quality during routine rig site surveys.

Surface waves form the longest and strongest portion of a seismic record excited by explosions and shallow earthquakes. Traversing areas with diverse geologic structures, they 'absorb' information on the properties of these areas which is best retlected in dispersion, the dependence of velocity on frequency. The other prop erties of these waves - polarization, frequency content, attenuation, azimuthal variation of the amplitude and phase - arc also controlled by the medium between the source and the recording station; some of these are affected by the properties of the source itself and by the conditions around it. In recent years surface wave seismology has become an indispensable part of seismological practice. The maximum amplitude in the surface wave train of virtually every earthquake or major explosion is being measured and used by all national and international seismological surveys in the determination of the most important energy parameter of a seismic source, namely, the magnitude M, . The relationship between M, and the body wave magnitude fI1t, is routinely employed in identification of underground nuclear explosions. Surface waves of hundreds of earthquakes recorded every year are being analysed to estimate the seismic moment tensor of earthquake sources, to determine the periods of free oscillations of the Earth, to construct regional dispersion curves from which in turn the crustal and upper mantle structure in various areas is derived, and to evaluate the dissipative parameters of the mantle material."

This collection of papers originates from a meeting are in current use on board UK research vessels. organized in May 1988 at the Geological Society, Marine geological exploration requires information under three further headings: (i) the "shape" of the London, under the auspices of its Marine Studies Group. The meeting was concerned with reviewing sea floor, (ii) the nature of the rocks and sediments the present state-of-the-art of marine geological and which lie at its surface, and (iii) the nature of deeper geophysical sampling and surveying techniques. structures. Studies of the shape of the sea floor The pace of scientific exploration of the ocean (bathymetry) are based primarily on echo sounder basins has increased dramatically over the past few and side-scan sonar surveying. Technology in this decades in response to interest in the global tectonic field has seen major advances over the past two processes which control their long-term evolution decades, with the development of new ceramic ma and the regional and local sedimentary and tectonic terials to provide more efficient and powerful trans ducers, the increasing use of digital data processing processes which shape them, as well as more practi cal questions such as the nature and extent of off techniques to improve the quality of the signal from shore mineral resources, problems of waste disposal the sea floor, and the introduction of new design at sea and the response of sea level to global climatic concepts to provide higher resolution records."

This volume is a compendium of papers on the subject, as noted in the book title, of modeling and mapping. They were presented at the 25th Anniversary meeting of the International Association for Mathematical Geology (IAMG) at Praha (Prague), Czech Republic in October of 1993. The Association, founded at the International Geological Congress (IGC) in Prague in 1968, returned to its origins for its Silver Anniversary celebration. All in all 146 papers by 276 authors were offered for the 165 attendees at the 3-day meeting convened in the Hotel Krystal. It was a time for remembrance and for future prognostication. The selected papers in Geologic Modeling and Mapping comprise a broad range of powerful techniques used nowadays in the earth sciences. Modeling stands for reconstruction of geological features, such as subsurface structure, in space and time, as well as for simulation of geological processes both providing scenarios of geologic events and how these events might have occurred. Mapping stands for spatial analysis of data, a topic that always has been an extremely important part of the earth sciences. Because both modeling and mapping are used widely in conjunction, the book title should reflect the close relation of the subjects rather than a division. Here, we bring together a collection of papers that hopefully contribute to the growing amount of knowledge on these techniques.

Gorda Ridge presents a primarily technical summary of recent advances in seafloor research related to mineral exploration of the only seafloor spreading center within the United States' Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Spreading centers are known to be the locus of hydrothermal activity and to host mineral deposits of hydrothermal origin. The book includes sections on the results of mineral exploration on Gorda Ridge, the newest technologies for mineral exploration and sampling on the seafloor, and the evolving field of hydrothermal vent biology and ecology. What makes the book unique is that it is: 1) a site book, 2) a truly multidisciplinary summation of the state of the art in complementary areas of deep ocean geology and biology, and 3) a marker in the evolution of federal-state relations concerning ocean development.

This book is the published record of the papers presented at a conference of the Norwegian Petroleum Society (NPF) held in Bergen, Norway, on 3-5 October, 1988. The conference was initially proposed and promoted by the Geology and Geophysics Advisory Committee of the Norwegian Petroleum Society consisting of: A. M. Spencer (Chairman), M. Brink,J. D. Collinson, S. Hanslien, D. M. D.James, T. B. Lund, K. Messel, E. Ormaasen and G. Saeland. The programme and more detailed planning of the conference was carried out by a programme committee consisting of: J. D. Collinson (Chairman), O. Eldholm, E. Holter, D. M. D.James, H. Tykoezinski, D. Worsley and S. M. Aasheim. There were 245 participants at the meeting and 36 papers were presented as talks with a further 9 presented as posters. These proceedings are representative of the range of topics covered. The meeting was characterized by a high level of discussion which has influenced several authors in the final preparation of their written papers. These proceedings have been edi ted on behalf of the Norwegian Petroleum Society by J. D. Collinson with help from H. Tykoezinski. The editor and the organizing committee wish to thank all the referees who reviewed papers and all the authors who responded so fully and promptly to their comments. The NPF is most grateful to the University of Bergen for making available their facilities for the conference.

Trans-boundary water resources are often a cause of conflict among riparian entities. Increasing demand for water resources and deterioration of existing water sources underscore the need to resolve conflicts over the allocation of consumption and pollution rights among conflicting uses and users. Because economic growth of the entities that share a water resource depends on sustainability of the resource, water has great potential as a basis for cooperation among political entities. However, enforcement of cooperation particularly in international settings is limited. Thus, parties sharing a water resource will form and remain in a cooperating coalition only when economic incentives for each can be identified. This book offers an economic approach to resolution of conflicts by identifying economic mechanisms that encourage sustainable cooperation. The book includes discussions on international, interstate, and intrastate disputes regarding both water quantity and water quality issues. It presents mechanisms for facilitating cooperation among users from agricultural, industrial, domestic, and environmental sectors.It considers the experience and potential in many regions around the world including Australia (the Muray-Darling Basin), Latin America (Chile), the Middle East (Israel and the Palestinian Authority), the U.S. (California, Florida's Everglades, Hawaii, and the Chesapeake Bay), and Africa (South Africa, Lesotho). Part I of the book discusses international experience in forming water coalitions and offers an illustrative model of water quality coalitions. It emphasizes the dependence of sustainability of international agreements on the practical ability to create incentives through economic mechanisms and political linkages that overcome the problem of limited enforcement due to sovereignty claims. Part II of the book discusses management of intrastate U.S. water resources involving competing local jurisdictions or user groups and the U.S. and Australian attempts to facilitate state management of interstate water resources through federal cooperation. Part III of the book explores the expanding scope of trans-boundary water resource issues that contribute to complexity of conflict beyond traditional interests such as allocation and navigation rights.In particular, it analyzes the economic implications of nutrient, land, and airshed management in an environment where the interaction of trans-boundary water resources with the ecological system is considered. Trans-boundary water usage and infrastructure are discussed in the context of privatization and political uncertainty. Part IV of the book examines economic solutions to trans-boundary water allocation including water markets, tradable water permits, contractual arrangements, and coordinated management. The interaction between ground and surface water and the interaction between desalinated, recycled, and fresh water is analyzed in the context of optimal water allocation. The book concludes with a critical discussion of the role and potential of the economics profession in contributing to conflict resolution and management of trans-boundary water resources. The strengths and weaknesses of economic analysis are discussed with special consideration of the modern tools of bargaining theory and game theory that go beyond economic efficiency in considering political realities.

Identificationof rock-forming minerals in thin section is a key skill needed by all earth science students and practising geologists. This translation of the completely revised and updated German second edition (by Leonore Hoke, Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand) provides a comprehensive guide to identifying 140 of the most important rock-forming mineral species. The book is divided into three main parts. Part A is a practical guide to the fundamentals of crystal optics, polarization microscopy and the practical use of microscopes. Part B gives a detailed description of the characteristic optical features, special features, and the paragenesis of the most common rock-forming minerals. This well-illustrated part is divided into opaque minerals, isotropic, uniaxial and optical biaxial mineral groups. Part C contains identification tables for the minerals and diagrams showing the international classification of magmatic rocks, as well as a colour plate section showing crystal forms of minerals. The book will provide an invaluable guide to all undergraduate earth scientists, as well as to professional geologists requiring an overview of mineral identification in thin section.

The first North Sea Oil and Gas Reservoirs Conference was held in Trondheim in 1985 as part of the Norwegian Institute of Technology's 75th anniversary celebrations. Favourable reactions from the delegates prompted the Committee to re-run the event some three and a half years later, and it is now intended that the Confe rence be held on a regular basis as long as there is a demand for this type of gathering. The objectives of the 1989 Conference, which were broadly similar to those of the previous one, were: (a) to bring together those engaged in various geoscientific and reservoir engineering aspects of North Sea Oil and gas reservoirs in one forum; (b) to demonstrate wherever poSsible the interdependence of the various disciplines and specializations; (c) to promote innovative, synergistic approaches to research and development programmes aimed at North Sea conditions; and (d) to reflect current trends in the reservoir sciences. Naturally there was no place for specialist parallel sessions in a Conference aimed at encouraging interdisciplinary integration and awareness."

Traditional notions of security are premised on the primacy of state security. In relation to energy security, traditional policy thinking has focused on ensuring supply without much emphasis on socioeconomic and environmental impacts. Non-traditional security (NTS) scholars argue that threats to human security have become increasingly prominent since the end of the Cold War, and that it is thus critical to adopt a holistic and multidisciplinary approach in addressing rising energy needs. This volume represents the perspectives of scholars from across Asia, looking at diverse aspects of energy security through a non-traditional security lens. The issues covered include environmental and socioeconomic impacts, the role of the market, the role of civil society, energy sustainability and policy trends in the ASEAN region.

TECTONlCS AND PHYSICS Geology, although rooted in the laws of physics, rarely has been taught in a manner designed to stress the relations between the laws and theorems of physics and the postulates of geology. The same is true of geophysics, whose specialties (seismology, gravimetIy, magnetics, magnetotellurics) deal only with the laws that govern them, and not with those that govern geology's postulates. The branch of geology and geophysics called tectonophysics is not a formalized discipline or subdiscipline, and, therefore, has no formal laws or theorems of its own. Although many recent books claim to be textbooks in tectonophysics, they are not; they are books designed to explain one hypothesis, just as the present book is designed to explain one hypothesis. The textbook that comes closest to being a textbook of tectonophysics is Peter 1. Wyllie's (1971) book, The Dynamic Earth. Teachers, students, and practitioners of geology since the very beginning of earth science teaching have avoided the development of a rigorous (but not rigid) scientific approach to tectonics, largely because we earth scientists have not fully understood the origin of the features with which we are dealing. This fact is not at all surprising when one considers that the database for hypotheses and theories of tectonics, particularly before 1960, has been limited to a small part of the exposed land area on the Earth's surface.

The present book is the author's third on the subject of vertical seismic profiling (VSP). Ten years have elapsed since the pUblication of the fIrst book. During this period, VSP has become the principal method of seismic observations in boreholes and the chief method of experimental studies of seismic waves in the real earth. VSP combines borehole studies in the seismic frequency band, well velocity surveys, proximity or aplanatic surveys, all of which previously existed as separate methods. The high effectiveness ofVSP, its great practical value, the express nature and clarity of the results obtained have all contributed towards a very rapid acceptance of the method. In the USSR VSP has been used in an overwhelming majority of areas and is being used increasingly in many foreign countries as well. This has been greatly facilitated by the translation into English and the publication in the U. S. A. by the Society of Exploration Geophysicists of the book Vertical Seismic Profiling (Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1974). As the method has become more familiar, it has attracted growing interest outside the USSR This has been substantiated by the special seminar on VSP (Oklahoma, 1979) which was organized for 22 U. S. companies and universities and presented by the author.

The former Soviet Union possessed some of the world's largest reserves of energy and mineral resources. With the dissolution of the country in 1991, the former Soviet republics are now exercising complete control over their mining industries. The new Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of several new nations, well-endowed in hydrocarbons, metals, and industrial materials; efforts are now underway to boost development activities and attract foreign investment. Commonwealth members today are implementing policies to regulate energy and mineral development and enhance economic growth. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the energy and minerals industries of the CIS and other former Soviet republics outside the Commonwealth. Prospects for international cooperation and trade in hydrocarbons, metals, and nonmetals are examined, as are opportunities for joint ventures and technology transfers in mining. Economic relations between the CIS and several Asian nations are also analyzed. Contributors to the book from throughout the Commonwealth, Asia, Europe, and North America have a wide variety of backgrounds in the energy and mineral fields, including government, academia, and industry.

In the past decade, the field of trenchless technology has expanded rapidly in products, equipment, and utilization. This expansion would not have occurred without a strong increase ineconomic incentives to the user. Because theoperating environment has changed, trenchless technology is often the preferred alternative to traditional methods of digging holes and installing conduits. The infrastructure in which we live has become more congested and has to beshared by several users. In addition, the cost of restoring a road or landscaped area after construction may be higher than the cost of installing the conduit. These factors add to the need for trenchless technology-the ability to dig holes without disturbing the surface. In some ways, trenchless technology is a futuristic concept. Ruth Krauss in a children'sbookofdefinitions wrote,"AHole...Is to Dig." But thisstatement is not necessarily true. Today, a hole could be to bore. Trenchless technology is not new. But it certainly has become the buzzword of the construction industry and it appears that it will have a growing impact in the way contractors, utilities, and others install new facilities. Methods to bore horizontal holes were practiced as early as the 18005, but this technology has greatly changed. Today's tools include sophisticated drilling methods, state-of the-art power systems, and electronic guidance techniques. These tools can bore faster, safer, and more accurately, and in many instances more economically, than open-cllt methods. Technology has played an important role in these advances, but economics has become the driving force in making these systems popular.

Rock masses are initially stressed in their current in situ state of stress and to a lesser natural state. Whether one is interested in the extent on the monitoring of stress change. formation of geological structures (folds, faults, The subject of paleostresses is only briefly intrusions, etc. ), the stability of artificial struc discussed. tures (tunnels, caverns, mines, surface excava The last 30 years have seen a major advance our knowledge and understanding of rock tions, etc. ), or the stability of boreholes, a in the in situ or virgin stress field, stress. A large body of data is now available on knowledge of along with other rock mass properties, is the state of stress in the near surface of the needed in order to predict the response of rock Earth's crust (upper 3-4km of the crust). masses to the disturbance associated with those Various theories have been proposed regarding structures. Stress in rock is usually described the origin of in situ stresses and how gravity, within the context of continuum mechanics. It is tectonics, erosion, lateral straining, rock fabric, defined at a point and is represented by a glaciation and deglaciation, topography, curva second-order Cartesian tensor with six compo ture of the Earth and other active geological nents. Because of its definition, rock stress is an features and processes contribute to the current enigmatic and fictitious quantity creating chal in situ stress field."

Traditional notions of security are premised on the primacy of state security. In relation to energy security, traditional policy thinking has focused on ensuring supply without much emphasis on socioeconomic and environmental impacts. Non-traditional security (NTS) scholars argue that threats to human security have become increasingly prominent since the end of the Cold War, and that it is thus critical to adopt a holistic and multidisciplinary approach in addressing rising energy needs. This volume represents the perspectives of scholars from across Asia, looking at diverse aspects of energy security through a non-traditional security lens. The issues covered include environmental and socioeconomic impacts, the role of the market, the role of civil society, energy sustainability and policy trends in the ASEAN region.

This book describes the seismic methods used in geophys ical exploration for oil and gas in a comprehensive, non rigorous, mathematical manner. I have used it and its predecessors as a manual for short courses in seismic methods, and it has been extensively revised time and again to include the latest advances in our truly remark able science. I once called it, "Advanced Seismic Inter pretation," but the geophysicists who attended the courses always wondered when I was going to start dis cussing interpretation. They discovered at the end that I never did discuss interpretation as they knew it. No men tion was made of reflection picking, posting times, map ping, contouring, and things they already knew perfectly well. Instead, I discussed Fourier transforms, sampling theory, impulse responses, distortion operators, Wiener filters, noise in f-k space, velocity spectra, wave-equation migration, and direct detection of hydrocarbons as each of these topics appeared on the seismic scene. I wanted the geophysicists to think beyond the routine ofinterpre tation, to develop a better understanding of why seismic sections look as they do, to have a better feel for what digital processing is doing, for good or evil, to the seismic data. I attempted to stretch their minds. Whitehead said it best: "A mind once stretched by a new idea can never shrink to its former dimension. " May this book be a suc cessful mind-stretcher. R. L."

Although some handbooks on the microscopic identi In Part I the concept of heavy mineral analysis is fication of heavy mineral grains are available, a introduced and the relative significance of factors comprehensive manual illustrated in colour has not affecting heavy mineral assemblages is discussed. There been published until now. Because the appearance of are brief references to the commonly used laboratory minerals in grain mounts differs considerably from methods and auxiliary techniques. It concludes with those seen in a thin section, a different approach is some examples of the application of heavy mineral necessary for the identification of detrital grains. studies. Coloured photomicrographs, showing their colour Part II contains the descriptions of 61 transparent shades, pleochroism and interference tints, provide heavy mineral species, including those which are an excellent means of assisting recognition. As a commonly authigenic in sediments. Positive identi number of mineral grains have similar optical proper fication of authigenic minerals is important to avoid ties and morphology, it is equally important to confusion and to help recognition of diagenetic describe them verbally in detail, pointing out events. In the mineral descriptions considerable characteristic features and differences. emphasis is placed upon detrital morphology and This book is intended primarily as a manual that diagnostic features. Optical properties and character describes and illustrates the transparent heavy min istics are detailed, together with information on host erals most commonly found in sediments. It is hoped rocks.

This is the first book entirely devoted to travertine, a material in use for over 4000 years. The single-author work is a valuable reference source for travertine, covering all aspects of travertine origins, formation, composition, flora and fauna, occurrence and utilisation, as well as covering allied continental carbonates such as lake marls, calcretes and beachrocks.
Travertine, some forms of which are often known as tufa, is of particular significance as a source of environmental information (fossils and isotope geochemistry), often permitting the reconstruction of past environments. Reviews of dating techniques, classification and geomorphology are included and the author attempts to provide an unbiased but critical appraisal of current models of travertine formation.
Currently, travertine is in great demand as a building and ornamental stone. It has also been exploited in unconventional ways, such as petrifying springs and by way of unusual and little known artistic techniques. Scaling of pipes and boilers is often the result of processes allied to travertine formation. The phenomenon is described parallel to methods of scale elimination and compared with natural processes where travertine formation is inhibited. Travertine sites are of special scientific interest, with their rich and often unique floras and faunas displaying their unique biodiversity, and their unusual and often fragile biota. Conservation issues are discussed, together with the description of travertine fossils and occurrences throughout the geological record.
The content will be of interest to carbonate sedimentologists, hydrobiologists, palaeoclimatologists, physical geographers, water treatment engineers, astrobiologists, architects, and sculptors."

turning points that, in the course of a few years, have made this The uranium minerals that today are at the centre of worldwide metal an essential raw material. attention were unknown until 1780, when Wagsfort found a First, the destructive property of fission reactions made uranium a metal of fundamental strategic importance, increas pitchblende sample in 10hanngeorgenstadt. This discovery passed unnoticed, however, since Wags fort thought that it ing research in some nations, but the revolution came with the plan for the real possibility of utilizing chain reactions for contained a black species of a zinc mineral-hence the n' lme 'pitchblende' (= pitch-like blende). Seven years later, Klaproth, energy production in place of conventional fuels. while examining the mineral, noted that it contained an oxide Since that time a 'uranium race' has been in progress in many countries-often justified by the well-founded hope of of an unknown metal, which he called 'uranium' in honour of the planet Uranus, recently discovered by Herschel. Klaproth becoming self-sufficient with regard to energy, or at least of also believed that he had separated the metal, but, in fact, the paying off a part of the financial deficit due to increasing fuel imports."

Plan of Review This review of clay microstructure is aimed at the diverse group of professionals who share an interest in the properties of fine-grained minerals in sediments. During the last several decades, members of this group have included geologists, soil scientists, soil engineers, engineering geologists, and ceramics scientists. More recently, it has included significant numbers of marine geologists and other engineers. Each of the disciplines has developed special techniques for investigating properties of clay sediments that have proven to be fruitful in answering questions of central interest. Knowledge of clay microstructure-the fabric of a sediment and the physico chemical interactions between its components-is fundamental to all these disciplines (Mitchell 1956; Lambe 1958a; Foster and De 1971). Clay fabric refers to the spatial distribution, orientations, and particle-to-particle relations of the solid particles (generally those less than 3. 9 /Lm in size) of sediment. Physico-chemical interac tions are expressions of the forces between the particles. In this review, we trace the historical development of under standing clay microstructure by discussing key scientific papers published before 1986 on physico-chemical interactions in fine grained sediments and on clay fabric. Since the development follows an intricate path, the current view of clay microstructure is summarized. This summary includes a discussion of the present state of knowledge, the observations made so far, and the facts that are now established."

Introduction IX Community Energy Research and Development Strategy Programme Characteristics ImpLementation and Supervision Structure Status of Implementation Diffusion of Knowledge and Results Information for Future Proponents Breakdown of Support by Sector Breakdown of Projects by Sector Geophysics and Prospecting DrilLing 57 Production Systems 79 Secondary and Enhanced Recovery 183 Environmental Influence on Offshore 245 Auxiliary Ships and Submersibles 253 Pipelines 271 Transport 289 Natural Gas Technology 313 Energy Sources 323 Storage 333 MisceLlaneous 343 v PREFACE The 1973 oil crisis highLighted the dependency of the Community on imported hydrocarbons to satisfy its energy demand. Therefore, in order to improve security of suppLy the Community has deveLoped since 1973 a programme assisting the oiL industry to develop new technoLogies required for expLoiting oiL and gas resources outside and inside the Community territories. This programme (ReguLations 3056/73 and 3639/85) has aLLowed remarkabLe achievements in a sector where innovation is needed to take up the chaLLenge of producing oiL and gas in difficuLt environments. This report shows the achievements of the Community programme. It gives evidence of the high technicaL LeveL which has aLready been attained by the companies in the oiL and gas sector with the support of the Community.

Although considera bIe efforts are now being made to find new sources of energy, alI the experts are agreed that hydrocarbons will have to provide the greater part of our energy needs for a generation ahead. Exploration for and production of hydrocarbons therefore pose a serious problem for our future, as much for the quantitative satisfaction of our requirements as for our search for self-sufficiency in energy. As a direct result of improvements in technology throughout the world, geophysics has progressively enlarged its field of influence in the realms of exploration and production. But amongst the various geophysical methods available, seismic reflection has gradually become accepted as the basic tool of the oiI prospector. Reflection seismology has reached and consolidated this position because it has shown itself to be capable of adapting to the increasing complexity of the requirements of exploration. Initially directed towards geometric mapping of the sub-surface, it became the means of detection of structural traps in geotectonically quiescent regions, and thereafter in increasingly complex surroundings. It has enabled us to clothe the structural framework with a lithology, initially approximate, but becoming more and more precise, assisting the explorer to locate stratigraphic traps. Further developments enable us under favourable circumstances to estimate the quality of the deposits and to detect the presence of fluids and of their interfaces; it then becomes an unrivalled tool for the producer, both in the development of deposits and in the application of enhanced recovery methods.

This volume contains the edited papers prepared by lecturers and participants of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on "Statistical Treatments for Estimation of Mineral and Energy Resources" held at II Ciocco (Lucca), Italy, June 22 - July 4, 1986. During the past twenty years, tremendous efforts have been made to acquire quantitative geoscience information from ore deposits, geochemical, geophys ical and remotely-sensed measurements. In October 1981, a two-day symposium on "Quantitative Resource Evaluation" and a three-day workshop on "Interactive Systems for Multivariate Analysis and Image Processing for Resource Evaluation" were held in Ottawa, jointly sponsored by the Geological Survey of Canada, the International Association for Mathematical Geology, and the International Geological Correlation Programme. Thirty scientists from different countries in Europe and North America were invited to form a forum for the discussion of quantitative methods for mineral and energy resource assessment. Since then, not only a multitude of research projects directed toward quantitative analysis in the Earth Sciences, but also recent advances in hardware and software technology, such as high-resolution graphics, data-base management systems and statistical packages on mini and micro-computers, made it possible to study large geoscience data sets. In addition, methods of image analysis have been utilized to capture data in digital form and to supply a variety of tools for charaterizing natural phenomena."