In this text, attention is focused mainly on those literature is accessible, however, it is to be expected countries in western Africa lying south of the Sahara, that teachers and lecturers will know of it and will be that is, between about SON and 15 DegreesN, and westward able to acquaint their students with it, where neces of about 15 DegreesE. Parts of the region as far north as sary. about 200N are considered from time to time, for A glossary of terms is provided at the end of the purposes of correlation and cQntinuity. The map on volume, and there is a summary at the beginning of p. xiii indicates the approximate extent of the cover each chapter. age. This book is dedicated to the many colleagues and The principal aim is to provide a broad view of students with whom we have worked in West Africa West African geology as a whole, for undergraduates and who have stimulated and encouraged our teach who are studying for honours degrees in geology and ing and research in various ways. We hope also that it may help the work of international organizations who already have an understanding of basic geologi cal principles. It is increasingly important that such as AGID, CIFEG and UNESCO to encourage the growing trend towards geological co-operation geologists working in this region should see it as made up of geological 'provinces' which transcend and correlation between different countries in West national boundaries. Africa.

Traditional notions of security are premised on the primacy of state security. In relation to energy security, traditional policy thinking has focused on ensuring supply without much emphasis on socioeconomic and environmental impacts. Non-traditional security (NTS) scholars argue that threats to human security have become increasingly prominent since the end of the Cold War, and that it is thus critical to adopt a holistic and multidisciplinary approach in addressing rising energy needs. This volume represents the perspectives of scholars from across Asia, looking at diverse aspects of energy security through a non-traditional security lens. The issues covered include environmental and socioeconomic impacts, the role of the market, the role of civil society, energy sustainability and policy trends in the ASEAN region.

Traditional notions of security are premised on the primacy of state security. In relation to energy security, traditional policy thinking has focused on ensuring supply without much emphasis on socioeconomic and environmental impacts. Non-traditional security (NTS) scholars argue that threats to human security have become increasingly prominent since the end of the Cold War, and that it is thus critical to adopt a holistic and multidisciplinary approach in addressing rising energy needs. This volume represents the perspectives of scholars from across Asia, looking at diverse aspects of energy security through a non-traditional security lens. The issues covered include environmental and socioeconomic impacts, the role of the market, the role of civil society, energy sustainability and policy trends in the ASEAN region.

The history of gold begins in antiquity. Bits of gold were found in Spanish caves that were used by Paleolithic people around 40,000 B.C. Gold is the "child of Zeus," wrote the Greek poet Pindar. The Romans called the yellow metal aurum ("shining dawn"). Gold is the first element and first metal mentioned in the Bible, where it appears in more than 400 references. This book provides the most thorough and up-to-date information available on the extraction of gold from its ores, starting with the miner alogy of gold ores and ending with details of refining. Each chapter con cludes with a list of references including full publication information for all works cited. Sources preceded by an asterisk (*) are especially recom mended for more in-depth study. Nine appendices, helpful to both students and operators, complement the text. I have made every attempt to keep abreast of recent technical literature on the extraction of gold. Original publications through the spring of 1989 have been reviewed and cited where appropriate. This book is intended as a reference for operators, managers, and designers of gold mills and for professional prospectors. It is also designed as a textbook for extractive metallurgy courses. I am indebted to the Library of Engineering Societies in New York, which was the main source of the references in the book. The assistance of my son, Panos, in typing the manuscript is gratefully acknowledged."

Although considera bIe efforts are now being made to find new sources of energy, alI the experts are agreed that hydrocarbons will have to provide the greater part of our energy needs for a generation ahead. Exploration for and production of hydrocarbons therefore pose a serious problem for our future, as much for the quantitative satisfaction of our requirements as for our search for self-sufficiency in energy. As a direct result of improvements in technology throughout the world, geophysics has progressively enlarged its field of influence in the realms of exploration and production. But amongst the various geophysical methods available, seismic reflection has gradually become accepted as the basic tool of the oiI prospector. Reflection seismology has reached and consolidated this position because it has shown itself to be capable of adapting to the increasing complexity of the requirements of exploration. Initially directed towards geometric mapping of the sub-surface, it became the means of detection of structural traps in geotectonically quiescent regions, and thereafter in increasingly complex surroundings. It has enabled us to clothe the structural framework with a lithology, initially approximate, but becoming more and more precise, assisting the explorer to locate stratigraphic traps. Further developments enable us under favourable circumstances to estimate the quality of the deposits and to detect the presence of fluids and of their interfaces; it then becomes an unrivalled tool for the producer, both in the development of deposits and in the application of enhanced recovery methods.

Why another book about Ore Deposits? There are a number of factors which motivated us to write this text and which may provide an answer to this question. Firstly our colleagues are predominantly mining engineers and minerals processing technologists, which provides us with a different perspective of ore deposits from many academic geologists. Secondly we have found that most existing texts are either highly theoretical or merely descriptive: we have attempted to examine the practical implications of the geological setting and genetic models of particular ore deposit types. We have written the text primarily for undergraduates who are taking options in Economic Geology towards the end of a Degree Course in Geology. However, we hope that the text will also prove valuable to geologists working in the mining industry. The text is to a large extent based on a review of the existing literature up to the end of 1984. However, we have visited most of the mining districts cited in the text and have also corresponded extensively with geologists to extend our knowledge beyond the published literature. Nonetheless writing a text-book on Ore Deposits is a demanding task and it is inevitable that sins of both omission and commission have been committed. We would therefore welcome comments from readers which can be incorporated in future editions. RICHARD EDW ARDS KEITH ATKINSON Cmnhome School ( n\1illcs April 1985 Glossary Adit A horizontal, or near horizontal, passage from the surface into a mme.

The book focuses on the use of inelastic analysis methods for the seismic assessment and design of bridges, for which the work carried out so far, albeit interesting and useful, is nevertheless clearly less than that for buildings. Although some valuable literature on the subject is currently available, the most advanced inelastic analysis methods that emerged during the last decade are currently found only in the specialised research-oriented literature, such as technical journals and conference proceedings. Hence the key objective of this book is two-fold, first to present all important methods belonging to the aforementioned category in a uniform and sufficient for their understanding and implementation length, and to provide also a critical perspective on them by including selected case-studies wherein more than one methods are applied to a specific bridge and by offering some critical comments on the limitations of the individual methods and on their relative efficiency. The book should be a valuable tool for both researchers and practicing engineers dealing with seismic design and assessment of bridges, by both making the methods and the analytical tools available for their implementation, and by assisting them to select the method that best suits the individual bridge projects that each engineer and/or researcher faces.

The demand for coal use (for electricity generation) and coal products, particularly liquid fuels and chemical feedstocks, is increasing throughout the world. Traditional markets such as North America and Europe are experiencing a steady increase in demand whereas emerging Asian markets, such as India and China, are witnessing a rapid surge in demand for clean liquid fuels. A detailed and comprehensive overview of the chemistry and technology of coal in the twenty-first century, The Chemistry and Technology of Coal, Third Edition also covers the relationship of coal industry processes with environmental regulations as well as the effects of combustion products on the atmosphere. Maintaining and enhancing the clarity of presentation that made the previous editions so popular, this book: Examines the effects of combustion products on the atmosphere Details practical elements of coal evaluation procedures Clarifies misconceptions concerning the organic structure of coal Discusses the physical, thermal, electrical, and mechanical properties of coal Analyzes the development and current status of combustion and gasification techniques In addition to two new chapters, Coal Use and the Environment and Coal and Energy Security, much of the material in this edition been rewritten to incorporate the latest developments in the coal industry. Citations from review articles, patents, other books, and technical articles with substantial introductory material are incorporated into the text for further reference. The Chemistry and Technology of Coal, Third Edition maintains its initial premise: to introduce the science of coal, beginning with its formation in the ground to the production of a wide variety of products and petrochemical intermediates in the twenty-first century. The book will prove useful for scientists and engineers already engaged in the coal and/or catalyst manufacturing industry looking for a general overview or update on the clean coal technology as well as professional researchers and students in chemistry and engineering.

This text was originally written for use with the videotape program of the same title. Numbered video cassettes correspond to the following chapters of the book: Tape Chapter(s) Tape Chapter(s) 1 1-2. 2. 1 11 3. 4 2 2. 2. 2-2. 3 12 3. 5. 1-3. 5. 2 3 2. 4 13 3. 5. 3 4 2. 5-2. 6 14 3. 5. 4-3. 6. 3 5 2. 7-2. 8 15 3. 7-3. 7. 2 6 3 16 3. 8-4 7 3. 1 17 4. 1 8 3. 2-3. 2. 1 18 4. 2-4. 4 9 3. 2. 2-3. 2. 3 19 5 10 3. 3 Complete information about the videotape program, Seismic Exploration for Sandstone Reservoirs may be obtained from: IHRDC, 137 Newbury St. , Boston, MA 02116, (617) 536-0202. Acknowledgements Thanks are expressed to the authors, companies and professional associations who have allowed the use of their material in the course. The author and publisher are grateful for permission to reproduce material whose copyright belongs as follows: Figures: 2. 4-3 (Widess) SEG; 2. 4-4 (Prescott) Continental Oil Company; 3-1 (Le Blanc) AAPG; 3-2 (MacKenzie) AAPG; 3. 1-1 Seiscom Delta; 3. 1-3 (Schramm et al. ) AAPG; 3. 1-4 (Lamer et al. ) Western Geophysical Company; 3. 2. 2-2 Prakla Seismos; 3. 2. 2-3 (Leung et al. ) Amoco Europe; 3. 2. 2-4 (Newman et al. ) S&A Geophysical; 3. 2. 3-2 Seiscom Delta; 3. 3-1 (Taner) Seiscom Delta; 3.

All the solid fuels fossil energy and mineral commodities we use come out of the Earth. Modern society is increasingly dependent on mineral and fossil energy sources. They differ in availability, cost of production, and geographical distribution. Even if solid fuels, fossil energy resources and mineral commodities are non-renewable, the extracted metals can to a large extent be recycled and used again and again. Although the stock of these secondary resources and their use increases, the world still needs and will continue to need primary mineral resources for the foreseeable future. Growing demands have begun to restrict availability of these resources. The Earth is not running out of critical mineral resources - at least for the near future - but the ability to explore and extract these resources is being restricted in many regions by competing land use, as well as political and environmental issues. Extraction of natural resources requires a clear focus on sustainable development, involving economic, environmental and socio-cultural aspects. Although we do not know what the most important resources will be in 100 years from now, we can be quite certain that society will still need energy and a wide range of raw materials. These resources will include oil and gas, coal, uranium, thorium, geothermal, metallic minerals, industrial and specialty minerals, including cement, raw materials, rare-earth elements. A global approach for assessing the magnitude and future availability of these resources is called for - an approach that, with appropriate international collaboration, was started within the triennium of the International Year of Planet Earth. Some global mineral resource assessments, involving inter-governmental collaboration, have already been initiated. The International Year of Planet Earth helped to focus attention on how the geosciences can generate prosperity locally and globally, as well as sustainability issues in both developed and developing countries.

In 1866 William P. Blake, professor of mineralogy, geology and mining at the College of California, parent to the University of California, Berkeley, prepared as a report to the State Board of Agriculture an "Annotated Catalog of the Principal Mineral Species Hitherto Recognized in California and the adjoining States and Territories. " Seventy-seven mineral species appeared on the list. It was the beginning of a series that became known as Minerals of California. This first catalog was followed in 1884 and 1886 by a list of 135 species compiled by H. G. Hanks, the first state mineralogist of California, and pub. lished in the fourth and sixth State Mining Bureau reports. Then beginning in 1914 with a volume prepared by A. S. Eakle, professor of mineralogy at the Uni versity of California, Berkeley, the Division of Mines and Geology published new editions in the series at approximately ten-year intervals. Author Year Mineral Species A. S. Eakle 1914 352 A. S. Eakle 1923 417 A. Pabst 1938 446 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1948 516 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1956 523 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1966 602 (For a more detailed review of the Minerals of California series, see I. Campbell, 1966, pp. 13-19. ) For over 100 years the series has served those who have a historic, scientific or economic interest in California minerals."

This book accompanies a videotape program of the same name. The combined videotape and book, referred to as a module of instruction, was one of three prepared by IHRDC on a joint basis with Mobil Oil Corporation during 1980. The three modules, one each in geology, geophysics and petroleum engineering, were produced to determine whether this medium of instruction would provide an effective way of teaching recent graduates and those individuals changing specialties, "what they need to know, when they need to know it." The major observations Of the pilot production stage were that properly designed and properly used, video-assisted instruction is effective, effiCient, and convenient. With the confidence that this instructional medium provides one way for the interna tional petroleum industry to train young graduates in exploration and production, IHRDC sought financial and advisory support from a limited number Of companies to undertake the development of the BaSiC Technical Video Library for the E&P Specialist. To date the following companies have agreed to serve as Sponsors: Mobil, AGIP, ARAMCO, Cities Services, Dome Petroleum Ltd., Gulf, Phillips, Standard Oil of California/ Chevron, and Texaco."

This volume contains the papers presented at the North European Margin Symposium which was held at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim from 9 to 11th May 1983. The idea for the meeting was conceived by the Geology and Geophysics Committee of the Norwegian Petroleum Society, in meetings consisting of R P F Hardman, J Freake, I Gausland, A M Spencer, R G Todd, F Aamodt, E Nysaether and G Kobjl,iSrnsen. The Trondheim meeting was planned and organized by an Organizing and Editing Subcommittee consisting of E Holter, 0 S Johnsen, A Ml,iSrk, E Nysaether, P Songstad, A M Spencer and A Spinnangr. There were 216 participants at the meeting in Trondheim and 34 papers were given, most of which were invited. The meeting was opened by Dr K S Heier, Director of the Norwegian Geological Survey and a concluding address was given by E Bergsager of the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, who talked about future exploration in Norway.

An accessible account of the ways in which the world's plant life affects the climate. It covers everything from tiny local microclimates created by plants to their effect on a global scale. If you ve ever wondered how vegetation can create clouds, haze and rain, or how plants have an impact on the composition of greenhouse gases, then this book is required reading."

This little book is different. It is written, primarily, for geologists, reservoir engineers, and log analysts. Why? Because today's seismic method is more than a tool for reconnaissance exploration, for finding structures; it has become a tool for studying the discovered reservoir-its extent, its barriers, its variations of thickness, and its trends of porosity. Today, the geophysicist, the geolog ist, the engineer, and the log analyst can do great things together. Because the book is not written primarily for geophysi cists, it can skip much of the "mechanics" of the seismic method. The reader who reaches the last page (bless him ) will not be able to practise the seismic method, but he will understand how the seismic method can help to solve his problems. It may also be of value to those practitioners of the seismic method-in the field or in the processing centre-who already know the mechanics of the method, but would like to take a broader view. 1 1 Seismics and Structure Of all the geophysical methods working from the surface, there is only one which is widely accepted for studies of individual petroleum reservoirs-the seismic reflection method. We would dearly love to have something better, but alas ... Reduced to its essentials, the method is this: we make a bang, and we listen for echoes."

Produced sand causes a lot of problems. From that reasons sand production must be monitored and kept within acceptable limits. Sand control problems in wells result from improper completion techniques or changes in reservoir properties. The idea is to provide support to the formation to prevent movement under stresses resulting from fluid flow from reservoir to well bore. That means that sand control often result with reduced well production. Control of sand production is achieved by: reducing drag forces (the cheapest and most effective method), mechanical sand bridging (screens, gravel packs) and increasing of formation strength (chemical consolidation). For open hole completions or with un-cemented slotted liners/screens sand failure will occur and must be predicted. Main problem is plugging. To combat well failures due to plugging and sand breakthrough Water-Packing or Shunt-Packing are used.

In all the industries in which I do management consulting, each manager considers his own industry to be truly "unique. " Of course, each is different in some respects, and each has its own quirks and features. However, the similarities among in dustries far outweigh the differences. The critical dynamics and the management issues have a great deal in common. However, there are, I believe, two industries (or segments of industries) that have an important critical uniqueness that does distinguish them from the rest. One of these is the exploration for undiscovered natural resources, notably for oil and gas; the other is research. In these two in dustry segments, the competition is not nearly so much one firm against another as it is each firm against "nature," or-if you prefer-against the unknown. This uniqueness not only sets these two industry segments apart from the rest, it also helps us to see what they have in common with each other: - Pure scientific talent, ability, and genius have direct commercial value. - We do not have the zero sum game of competition in the market place. A discovery by one firm does not usually perceptably lessen the opportunity of a "competitor" for a discovery. On the contrary, a discovery by one firm usually increases the knowledge of the whole industry, increasing com petitors' opportunity for discovery. - We see the source of continuing life for the rest of the firm."

This book describes the seismic methods used in geophys ical exploration for oil and gas in a comprehensive, non rigorous, mathematical manner. I have used it and its predecessors as a manual for short courses in seismic methods, and it has been extensively revised time and again to include the latest advances in our truly remark able science. I once called it, "Advanced Seismic Inter pretation," but the geophysicists who attended the courses always wondered when I was going to start dis cussing interpretation. They discovered at the end that I never did discuss interpretation as they knew it. No men tion was made of reflection picking, posting times, map ping, contouring, and things they already knew perfectly well. Instead, I discussed Fourier transforms, sampling theory, impulse responses, distortion operators, Wiener filters, noise in f-k space, velocity spectra, wave-equation migration, and direct detection of hydrocarbons as each of these topics appeared on the seismic scene. I wanted the geophysicists to think beyond the routine ofinterpre tation, to develop a better understanding of why seismic sections look as they do, to have a better feel for what digital processing is doing, for good or evil, to the seismic data. I attempted to stretch their minds. Whitehead said it best: "A mind once stretched by a new idea can never shrink to its former dimension. " May this book be a suc cessful mind-stretcher. R. L."

The purpose of this book is to bridge the gap between the traditional Geomechanics and Numerical Geotechnical Modelling with applications in science and practice. Geomechanics is rarely taught within the rigorous context of Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics, while when it comes to Numerical Modelling, commercially available finite elements or finite differences software utilize constitutive relationships within the rigorous framework. As a result, young scientists and engineers have to learn the challenging subject of constitutive modelling from a program manual and often end up with using unrealistic models which violate the Laws of Thermodynamics. The book is introductory, by no means does it claim any completeness and state of the art in such a dynamically developing field as numerical and constitutive modelling of soils. The author gives basic understanding of conventional continuum mechanics approaches to constitutive modelling, which can serve as a foundation for exploring more advanced theories. A considerable effort has been invested here into the clarity and brevity of the presentation. A special feature of this book is in exploring thermomechanical consistency of all presented constitutive models in a simple and systematic manner.

Recent landslide events demonstrate the need to improve landslide forecasting and early warning capabilities in order to reduce related risks and protect human lives. In this thesis, local and regional investigations were carried out to analyse landslide characteristics in the Swabian Alb region, and to develop prototypic landslide early warning systems.
In the local study area, an extensive hydrological and slope movement monitoring system was installed on a seasonally reactivated landslide body located in Lichtenstein-
Unterhausen. Monitoring data was analysed to assess the influence of rainfall and snow-melt on groundwater conditions, and the initiation of slope movements.
The coupled hydrology-slope stability model CHASM was applied to detect areas most prone to slope failures, and to simulate slope stability using a variety of input data. Subsequently, CHASM was refined and two web-based applications were developed: a technical early warning system to constantly simulate slope stability integrating rainfall measurements, hydrological monitoring data and weather forecasts; and a decision-support system allowing for quick calculation of stability for freely selectable slope profiles. On the regional scale, available landslide inventory data were analysed for their use in evaluation of rainfall thresholds proposed in other studies. Adequate landslide events were selected and their triggering rainfall and snow-melting conditions were compared to intensity-duration and cumulative thresholds. Based on the results, a regional landslide early warning system was developed and implemented as a webbased application.
Both, the local and the regional landslide early warning systems are part of a holistic and integrative early warning chain developed by the ILEWS project, and could easily be transferred to other landslide prone areas.

Geomorphological Mapping: a professional handbook of techniques and applications is a new book targeted at academics and practitioners who use, or wish to utilise, geomorphological mapping within their work. Synthesising for the first time an historical perspective to geomorphological mapping, field based and digital tools and techniques for mapping and an extensive array of case studies from academics and professionals active in the area. Those active in geomorphology, engineering geology, reinsurance, Environmental Impact Assessors, and allied areas, will find the text of immense value.
Growth of interest in geomorphological mapping and currently no texts comprehensively cover this topicExtensive case studies that will appeal to professionals, academics and students (with extensive use of diagrams, potentially colour plates)Brings together material on digital mapping (GIS and remote sensing), cartography and data sources with a focus on modern technologies (including GIS, remote sensing and digital terrain analysis)Provides readers with summaries of current advances in methodological/technical aspectsAccompanied by electronic resources for digital mapping

The present book is the author's third on the subject of vertical seismic profiling (VSP). Ten years have elapsed since the pUblication of the fIrst book. During this period, VSP has become the principal method of seismic observations in boreholes and the chief method of experimental studies of seismic waves in the real earth. VSP combines borehole studies in the seismic frequency band, well velocity surveys, proximity or aplanatic surveys, all of which previously existed as separate methods. The high effectiveness ofVSP, its great practical value, the express nature and clarity of the results obtained have all contributed towards a very rapid acceptance of the method. In the USSR VSP has been used in an overwhelming majority of areas and is being used increasingly in many foreign countries as well. This has been greatly facilitated by the translation into English and the publication in the U. S. A. by the Society of Exploration Geophysicists of the book Vertical Seismic Profiling (Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1974). As the method has become more familiar, it has attracted growing interest outside the USSR This has been substantiated by the special seminar on VSP (Oklahoma, 1979) which was organized for 22 U. S. companies and universities and presented by the author.

In the second edition Steve Kesler (University of Michigan) has been added as an author to rewrite some chapters. The motivation for this revised edition is to more intensively address economic issues that surround the exploitation of mineral resources. This emphasis gives the book a unique character. With these sections "Metals and Society" deals with issues that pervade much of current science reporting the rate of exploitation of natural resources, the question of when or if these resources will be exhausted, the pollution and social disturbance that accompanies mining, the compromises and challenges that arise from the explosion of demand from China, India and other rapidly developing countries, and the moral issues that surround mining of metals in lesser developed countries for consumption in the first-world countries.

With its dual character, the book will be useful as an introductory text for students in the earth sciences and a reference volume for students, teachers and researchers of geography, economics and the social sciences.

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Since the Arab oil embargo of 1974, it has been clear that the days of almost limitless quantities of low-cost energy have passed. In addition, ever worsening pollution due to fossil fuel consumption, for instance oil and chemical spills, strip mining, sulphur emission and accumulation of solid wastes, has, among other things, led to an increase of as much as 10% in the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere in this century. This has induced a warming trend through the 'greenhouse effect' which prevents infrared radiation from leaving it. Many people think the average planetary temperatures may rise by 4 DegreesC or so by 2050. This is probably true since Antarctic ice cores evidence indicates that, over the last 160000 years, ice ages coincided with reduced levels of carbon dioxide and warmer interglacial episodes with increased levels of the gas in the atmosphere. Consequently, such an elevation of temperature over such a relatively short span of time would have catastrophic results in terms of rising sea level and associated flooding of vast tracts of low-lying lands. Reducing the burning of fossil fuels makes sense on both economic and environmental grounds. One of the most attractive alternatives is geothermal resources, especially in developing countries, for instance in El Salvador where geothermal energy provides about a fifth of total installed electrical power already. In fact, by the middle 1980s, at least 121 geothermal power plants were operating worldwide, most being of the dry steam type.

Urbanization drastically alters the ecosystems structure and functions, disrupts cycling of C and other elements along with water. It alters the energy balance and influences climate at local, regional and global scales. In 2008, urban population exceeded the rural population. In 2050, 70% of the world population will live in urban centers. The number of megacities (10 million inhabitants) increased from three in 1975 to 19 in 2007, and is projected to be 27 in 2025. Rapid urbanization is altering the ecosystem C budget. Yet, urban ecosystems have a large C sink capacity in soils and biota. Judicious planning and effective management can enhance C pool in urban ecosystems, and off-set some of the anthropogenic emissions. Principal components with regards to C sequestration include home lawns and turfs, urban forests, green roofs, park and recreational/sports facilities and urban agriculture.