Recently, the pharmaceutical industry has shown considerable interest in the en masse micropropagation of elite plants, and the large-scale produc- tion of secondary metabolites in plant cell cultures through the use of bioreactors. This is now being realized by the selection of high-yielding somac1ones or through the production of hairy roots by transformation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes. These new developments need to be high-lighted and brought to the attention of workers dealing with medicinal, aromatic, and other plants of industrial importance. A series of books on the biotech- nology of medicinal and aromatic plants is therefore being compiled to provide a survey of the literature focusing on recent information and the state of the art. This book, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants IV, like the previous three volumes (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants I, II, and III, published in 1988, 1989, and 1991, respectively) is unique in its approach. It comprises 28 chapters dealing with the distribution, economic importance, conventional propagation, review of tissue culture studies, and the in vitro production of important medicinal and pharmaceutical compounds in various species of Ammi, Bergenia, Canavalia, Capsicum, Cassia, Cephaelis, Cornus, Cucurbita, Elettaria, Eupatorium, Genipa, Gentiana, Gypsophila, Hygrophila, Leon- topodium, Nerium, Picrasma, Polygonum, Ptelea, Rheum, Scopolia, Silene, Solanum, Strophanthus, Tagetes, Thymus, and Uncaria. This book is tailored to the needs of advanced students, teachers, and research workers in the fields of plant biotechnology and chemical engineer- ing, pharmacy, botany, and phytochemistry.

Although biologists have directed much attention to estimating the extent and causes of species losses, the consequences for ecosystem functioning have been little studied.
This book examines the impact of biodiversity on ecosystem processes in tropical forests - one of the most species-rich and at the same time most endangered ecosystems on earth. It covers the relationships between biodiversity and primary production, secondary production, biogeochemical cycles, soil processes, plant life forms, responses to disturbance, and resistance to invasion. The analyses focus on the key ecological interfaces where the loss of keystone species is most likely to influence the rate and stability of ecosystem processes.

Two aspects of the biotechnology of medicinal and aromatic plants are of immediate application. (1) Micropropagation under controlled germ- free conditions which enables their fast multiplication and availability throughout the year irrespective of external environment - this is specially useful for elite and rare plants. (2) A large-scale culture and low-temperature storage of cells enables retention of their biosynthetic potential for the production of important secondary metabolites, med- icines, flavours and other pharmaceutical products. This book has been compiled with a view to bringing together information and literature on the biotechnology and the present state of the art of plant cell cultures for their potential use in the pharmaceutical industry. This volume comprises 29 chapters on the biotechnology of med- icinal and aromatic plants grouped into three sections, (1) microprop- agation, immobilization, cryopreservation, bioreactors, production of secondary metabolites and their impact in pharmacy, (2) production through cell cultures of antitumour compounds, lrDopa, shikonin, an- thraquinone, morphinan alkaloids, caffeine, berberine, valeoptriates, rosmarinic acid, quinine, tropanes, hypoxoside, ellipticine, paeoniflorin, saponins, cardenolides etc, and (3) distribution, economic importance, conventional propagation, review of the tissue culture work on micropropagation and the in vitro production of compounds of medicinal and pharmaceutical interest in various species of Cannabis, Centaurium, Cinchona, Digitalis, Duboisia, Hypoxia, Lithospermum, Ochrosia, Paeonia, Panax, Papavar, Rehmannia, Rhamnus and Rhaza.

In keeping with the spirit of an Advanced Series in the Agricultural Sciences, we have attempted to address herein most of the current research areas being used to characterize, describe and manage salt-affected soils. Because of a certain amount of personal bias inherent in our individual viewpoints and backgrounds, some areas have been accorded more emphasis than others. It has been our goal, however, to provide either detail about, or at least a recent reference to, each major area of current soil salinity research. This information, coupled with what we hope to be a rather logical progression from descriptive material on equilibrium or near-equilibrium soil chemistry, through transport processes, to eventual management practices including some elementary economic decisions, should enable the reader to bridge the gap from introductory soil chemistry or soil physics texts to the basic literature of this area. The text will be perceived by the astute reader as somewhat uneven in its treatment of respective sections. We feel that this is to a certain extent appropriate, for it thus portrays the unevenness of progress to date in the corresponding areas of research. The management of saline and sodic soils remains largely an empirical semi-science or even art, whereas transport phenomena are normally dealt with in a much more theoretical (and also a much more highly mathematical) vein. Equilibrium soil chemistry has historically occupied an intermediate position with respect to its mix of empiricism and theoretical rigor.

In continuation of Volumes 8 and 9 (1989) on in vitro manipulation of plant protoplasts, this new volume deals with the regeneration of plants from protoplasts and genetic transformation in various species of Agrostis, Arabidopsis, Atropa, Brassica, Catharanthus, Datura, Cucumis, Daucus, Digitalis, Duboisia, Eustoma, Festuca, Helianthus, Hordeum, Kalanchoe, Linum, Lobelia, Lolium, Lotus, Lycium, Lycopersicum, Mentha, Nicotiana, Pelargonium, Pisum, Pyrus, Salvia, Scopolia, and Solanum.These studies reflect the far reaching implications of protoplast technologyin genetic engineering of plants. They are of special interest to researchers in the field of plant tissue culture, molecular biology, genetic engineering, and plant breeding.

This volume arises from an International Symposium on Flow and Transport in the Natural Environment held in Canberra, Australia, in September 1987. The meeting was hosted by the CSIRO Division of Environmental Mechanics (now the Centre for Environmental Mechanics) to mark the opening of the second stage of its headquarters, the F.C. Pye Field Environment Laboratory, twenty-one years after the opening of the first stage. Those twenty-one years have seen much progress in our understanding of the physics of the natural environment and the occasion provided an ideal opportunity to review advances in our knowledge of flow and transport phenomena, particularly with regard to flow and transport in soils, plants and the atmosphere. The contents of this volume are based very closely on the Symposium's program. Undoubtedly, our choices of topics were idiosyncratic, but we believe that those we have selected exhibit progress, innovation, and much scope for practical application. Rather than being encyclopaedic, we have sought to deal with thirteen selected topics in depth.

This seris keeps scientists and advanced students specialized on a particular subject informed of the latest developments and results in all different areas of botany. The present volume includes reviews on structuralbotany, physiology, genetics, taxonomy, geobotanic, as well as a contribution treating seed dispersal.

The 50th volume of Progress in Botany appears in new guise. In cooperation with Springer-Verlag we have changed from the less attractive typewriter composition to the direct reproduction of a manuscript which was writ ten by means of a text editing system and produced by a laser printer. We, the editors, should like to take the appearance of Volume 50 as the occasion for a few short remarks. Our younger readers are perhaps not aware that our Book Series was founded in 1931 by Fritz von Wettstein, based on the following thoughts and considerations, aptly formulated by him in the Preface to the first volume. "One of the greatest dangers threatening progress in the science of botany is the absolutely unbelievable growth in volume of the literature. The quality of journals, books and individual works that are daily sent to us makes it impossible for anyone person to maintain a general view of the progress made in botany in all the specialized fields, let alone to find time for results from associated su bjects. For varying reasons, every botanist must find this state of matters insupportable. Let us endeavor, in the general interest, to retain a wide background of knowledge, and not become limited specialists. The vitally necessary connections between the specialized fields can only flourish, or even exist, if the general view of botany as a whole can be maintained."

Hydroponics, the method of growing plants without soil, presents a feasible alternative to conventional farming in areas which are short on water supply and limited in agricultural soil.
This book will serve as an indispensable guide for students in the agriculture sciences, for agriculture instructors and soilless-culture farmers. It provides up-to-date information on optimal plant nutrition, deficiencies and toxicities of nutrients, plant growth media, optimal root environment, environmental control, carbon dioxide requirements, saline conditions and use of sewage in soilless culture. Other topics include economic aspects of hydroponics, new growth methods and an outlook for the future.

Photochemical oxidants are secondary air pollutants formed under the influence of sunlight by complex photochemical reactions in air which contains nitrogen oxides and reactive hydrocarbons as precursors. The most adverse components formed by photochemical reactions in polluted air are ozone (0 ) 3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), among many other products such as aldehydes, ketones, organic and inorganic acids, nitrates, sulfates etc. An analysis and evaluation of the available knowledge has been used to characterize the relationships among emissions, ambient air concentrations, and effects, and to identify the important controlling influences on the formation and effects of photochemical oxidants. The biological activity of photochemical oxidants was first clearly manifested during the early 1940's, when vegetation injury was observed in the Los Angeles Basin in the United States. Since that time, as a consequence of the increasing emissions of photochemical oxidant precursors, the photochemical oxidants have become the most important air pollutants in North America. In other parts of the world, for example South and Central America, Asia, and Australia, photo chemical oxidants threaten vegetation, particularly the economic and ecological performance of plant life. According to my knowledge, the first observations of ozone and PAN injury to vegetation in Europe were made by Dr. Ellis F. Darley (Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, University of California, Riverside, California) during a study visit (1963/64) to the Federal Republic of Germany."

of metal interactions with subcellular biochemical systems usually either are metabolites of the system affected (porphyrinurias) or represent some specific function of a cellular system being impaired (proteinurias). One typically finds a continuum of symptoms, from the subtle or so-called "no effect" bio chemical and physiological indicators of exposure to severe clinical disease and death. This continuum is the basis of much of the controversy since many health officials follow the traditional practice of applying the "threshold health-effect" concept in evaluating the problems of environmental exposure to metals. The past decade or so, however, has seen a vast increase in our understanding of the effects of elevated concentrations of toxic metals in local populations and ecosystems. At the same time, there is a growing awareness that the effects of the metals which occur naturally in the environment must be distinguished from those imposed by the pollutant fraction. This point was amply document ed in a recent study of cadmium intake and cadmium in a number of human tissues in Sweden, Japan, and the United States, which showed fairly conclu sively that the background exposure in Japan was about threefold higher than in the other two countries (2). One immediate implication is that any health ef fect studies of cadmium in Japan using control groups within that country are liable to underestimate the difference between the exposed and the control groups simply because of the the high "background" intake."

Forest damage, forest decline, forest dieback - not related to biotic agents - is occurring in the Atlantic and Pacific regions. In Europe and Eastern North America this serious problem is considered to be, at least to some part, related to industrial air pollutants and their atmospheric conversion products, such as acid rain or ozone. Forest declines in the Pacific region have been attributed largely to natural causes involving forest dynamics, since air pollution and other negative anthropogenic influences are practically absent. Presented here are typical decline phenomena in the Pacific and Atlantic region, potential causes, effects and mitigation strategies, and the question whether there are any similarities on a functional or structural basis is addressed.

John Sculley In the short history of personal computing, the task of the software programmer has been one of the least recognized-but one of the most significant-in the industry. In addition to defining the prob lems, and presenting the solutions, the software programmer is con fronted with the challenge of having to predict what combination of ideas and technologies will move the industry forward in the most compelling way. Even though we've seen the development of tremendous applications in a surprisingly short period of time, the most difficult problems often surface when we try to elevate a suc cessful local idea to the international arena. In the case of Apple Computer, these challenges become especially profound when you consider that Apple sells Macintosh not just in the United States, but in Japan, China, the Middle East, Africa, East ern Europe, and even to the United Nations itself. Of course, this means that the personal computer must work everywhere around the world. But more significantly, it also means that the software must reflect the uniqueness of a given culture, its language, morals, and even its sense of humor. To step away from a narrowly-defined, nationally-based paradigm for software development, programmers, management, and entire corporations must learn to recognize what elements of an interface, problem solving technique, documentation illustration, package de sign, and advertisement are local, and which elements are appro priate for global markets."

Neurochemical Techniques in Insect Research properly emphasizes the insect. It only scratches the surface of the exploding repertoire of general neuro chemical techniques that can be applied to insect research in 1985. But it al so presents the advantages of using insects for studying certain biological questions that are approachable by neurochemical techniques. Even more so, it summarizes the long list of unique problems encountered in attempting to study insects by neurochemical techniques. As in other volumes of this series, the contributors to this volume are the authorities in the field. They themselves have developed much of the material presented. Thus the sum effort provides a true description of the state of the art; and, pleasantly, it does so in a very complete and clear manner. Readers of this series will not need to be reminded that, despite the fact that vertebrates make up only about 3% of all animal species, research in in vertebrates such as insects has lagged behind that on vertebrates, at least in the neurochemistry area; the relative simplicity and large cell size of the in sect nervous system has always provided incentive for work in neurophysiol ogy and neuroanatomy. Toxicology interests will always stimulate a certain amount of work on insect neuropharmacology, and insects are extremely suitable for several areas of toxin research. Last but not least, the insects are beautiful organisms for which the applications of genetics can be made to the study of nervous system function."

In order to provide meaningful information for evaluating environmental consequences of alternative control strategies of air pollutant emissions, scientists have recently initiated numerous studies aiming at collecting and making use of regional data. New kinds of mathematical models have been developed that no longer are calibrated just for individual stands or catchments but can be applied on a large regional scale. Such regional models and data were reviewed at a meeting" Models to describe the geographic extent and time evolution of acidification and air pollution damage", organized by the Finnjsh Research Project on Acidification (HAPRO), and held in Aulanko, Hiimeenlinna, Finland, July 5-8, 1988. This volume is based on the outcome of that meeting. The chapters of the volume are written by leading scientists in the field. The main objective of this volume is to discuss the potential of regional models to analyze the geographic extent of acidification as well as the environmental damage and the time evolution of:the responses of the environment. First, in Part I of the volume, sensitivity distributions of ecosystems, forest soils and surface waters are described. The focus of interest is therefore extended from the most sensitive ecosystems to sensitive and moderately sensitive parts of the environment. When formulating national and interna tional targets, it is of crucial importance to know the whole distribution of critical loads within the area, and not only the level the most sensitive ecosystem can tolerate.

Forest decline became a matter of public and scientific concern in France in 1983 when conifers in the Vosges mountains were found to exhibit unusual crown deterioration. An impassioned controversy on a supposedly large scale forest health problem was then in full swing in Central Europe. A co-ordinated research programme entitled DEFORPA ("Deperissement des For ts et Pollution AtmospMrique") was launched in 1984. This programme ran from 1984 to 1991 and a number of projects are still in progress. The Programme was sponsored by three French ministries (Enviroument, Agriculture and Forestry, Research and Technologyl), several state agencies, various regional authorities and the Commission of the European Communities (DO xn and DG VI). Initially, emphasis was solely laid on the understanding of forest decline in the mountainous areas - because damage was most obvious there - in relation to natural and man-made factors. Air pollution was given high but not overwhelming priority. Thus, the DEFORPA Programme was not in its essence a nation-wide assessment of air pollution effects, unlike a number of national acidification research programmes in Europe and North America. During. the programme, however, the areas of concern expanded. In particular, research into water acidification in the Vosges mountains was developed in parallel with the DEFORPA Programme, and possible eutrophication of the ground flora in northeastern France became the subject of new research.

The rapid increase in environmental measurements during the past few decades is associated with (1) increasing awareness of the complex relations linking biological responses to atmospheric variables, (2) development of improved data acquisition and handling equipment, (3) the application of modeling to environmental problems, and (4) the implementation of large, cooperative studies of international scope. The consequences of man's possible alteration of the environment have increased our interest in the complex nature of biological responses to meteorological variables. This has generated activity in both measurements and in the application of modeling techniques. The virtual explosion of modeling activity is also associated with the development oflarge computers. The testing of these models has demonstrated the need for more, different, and better environmental data. In addition, technological developments, such as integrated circuits, have reduced the cost, power consumption, and complexity of data acquisition systems, thus promoting more environmental measurements. The emergence of scientific cooperation on a global scale has increased measurement activities markedly. The International Geophysical Year (1958) has been followed by the International Hydrologic Decade, the Inter national Biological Program, the Global Atmospheric Research Program, and a host of environmental studies of a regional nature that have all emphasized field data collection."

An increase in the demand for wood results in improved recovery and less residual biomass in the forests. Paradoxically, interest in forest residue as a renewable source of raw material seems to be in a reverse ratio to its availability in a certain area. Finland and Sweden are probably more dependent on forestry and forest in dustries than any other developed countries in the world. A sufficiency of raw ma terial for integrated forest industries is vital for the national economy of both countries, and a great deal of attention is being paid to the long-term potential of unutilized biomass left behind in logging operations. Furthermore, since these countries possess no reserves of fossil fuels, and since their per-capita consump tion of primary energy is exceptionally high, they also consider unmerchantable forest biomass a realistic source of indigenous energy. A joint Nordic research project on harvesting and utilization of logging residue was carried out in 1969-1976 under the auspices of the Nordic Research Council on Forest Operations. This fruitful cooperation soon gave rise to related national projects in Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Denmark, stimulating further research and producing practical applications. Concurrently, particularly after the worldwide energy crisis in 1973, research on all aspects of utilization of forest bio mass mushroomed in the United States, Canada, and the Soviet Union. An ex plosive increase occurred in both the number and diversity of biomass studies.

Isolated protoplasts are a unique tool for genetic manipulation of plants. Since the discovery of a method for the enzymatic isolation of pro-. toplasts by Professor E. C. Cocking in 1960, tremendous progress has been made in this very fascinating area of research. I have witnessed the struggle in the 1960's and early 1970's, when obtaining a clean prepara tion of protoplasts was considered an achievement. I also shared the pioneering excitement and enthusiasm in this field during the 2nd Inter national Congress of Plant Tissue Culture held at Strasbourg in 1970, where Dr. I. Thkebe of Japan presented his work on the induction of division in tobacco protoplasts. This was followed by my participation in three international conferences devoted to plant protoplasts held in 1972 in Salamanca (Spain) and Versailles (France), and then in 1975 in Nottingham (England). The enthusiasm shown by plant scientists at these meetings was ample proof of the bright future of protoplast technology, and it became evident that protoplasts would playa major role in plant biotechnology, especially in genetic engineering. Since then we have never looked back, and now the methods for isolation, fusion, and culture, as well as regeneration of somatic hybrids, have become routine laboratory procedures for most plant species. Currently the focus is on cereal and tree protoplasts. In order to bring about any genetic manipulation through fusion, in corporation of DNA, and transformation, the regeneration of the entire plant through manipulation of protoplasts is a prerequisite."

I first became interested in the methods of planning the sequence and timing of jobs on large-scale development projects, as a field officer involved in planning and implementing mechanised farming schemes in Uganda in the mid-sixties. This interest was reinforced by experience of agro-industrial projects in both Nigeria and Iran, when it became obvious that the lax traditional methods of both planning and controll ing the implementation of agricultural and other rural development projects were very ineffective compared with those already in use in other disciplines. An extended spell as Resident Adviser on a World Bank project to strengthen planning and project management services in the agricultural sector in Sind Province, Pakistan, stimulated this interest further, and gave opportunities to develop the use of improved methods on some very complex schemes. This book summarises the experience gained in adapting critical path methods, well established in other fields, to Third World development projects, with their peculiar problems. It would not have been possible to reach this point without the help and stimulation of discussions with a large number of colleagues, includ ing John Joyce (then of Hunting Technical Services), Hatsuya Azumi (World Bank), and-particularly-Zaffar Sohrwardy and Akhtar Ali of Aarkays Associates in Karachi, during our work together. My thanks are also due to Yasin Mohammed, who typed most of the original draft; Anwar Mohammed and Irene Mills for final typing; and to my wife, Jill, for drawing the original figures.

Genetic material is in flux: this is one of the most exciting recent concepts in molecular biology. This volume of "Plant Gene Research" describes changes that occur in the genetic material of plants. It is worthwhile re membering that the first examples of unstable genomes were described for maize before DNA was known to be the genetic material. Now trans posable elements like the ones found in maize have been described in almost all organisms and have become incorporated into our thinking about genome structure. Flux in the plant genome is not restricted to transposable elements or to nuclear genes. Exchanges of genetic material have been demonstrated within organelle DNA, between organelle DNAs or between organelle and nuclear DNAs. Such exchanges may only occur over evolutionary times or may be a continuing process. Also the environment alters the plant genome. Stress, either viral, nutri tional or tissue-culture induced causes heritable changes in the genome. Infection with the crown gall bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens results in the transfer of bacterial DNA into the plant genome."

A number of interdisciplinary fields related to "Plant Cell " "Biotechnology" are discussed. The two main directions are: Plant cell culture in agricultural applications for the improvement of crops and industrial applications in the production of secondary metabolites. A number of areas such as physiological and biochemical aspects of autotrophic cells, gene characterization in higher plants, transformation of plant cells, genetic stability in plant cell cultures, somatic hybridization and somatic embryogenesis are treated. Recent knowledge on somaclonal and gametoclonal variation as well as on the obtainment of protoplasts and their use for the isolation and culture of heterocaryons as tools for plant breeding are considered. Furthermore, the knowledge on biomass production in fermentor conditions and the role of immobilization for increased production and scale-up of plant cells are discussed.

Der vorliegende 6. Band konnte die Oberschrift "Pflanzenschutzforschung auf neuen Wegen" tragen. Trotz der verbreiteten, meist aufmangelndem Informations- stand beruhenden Voreingenommenheit gegen den chemischen Pflanzenschutz, nimmt dessen Bedeutung sHindig zu. Das beruht auf der Notwendigkeit einer sicheren und rationellen landwirtschaftlichen Produktionssteigerung, die durch das rapide Wachstum der WeItbevolkerung erzwungen wird. Zwar ist die land- wirtschaftliche Produktivitat auch in einigen Entwicklungslandern wahrend der letzten 15 Jahre merklich gestiegen, sie haIt aber vielfach mit der Vermehrung der Bevolkerung nicht Schritt. Der Pflanzenschutz ist nicht einseitig auf bestimmte Methoden festgelegt, sondern bedient sich unvoreingenommen aller wirtschaftlich und okologisch vertretbaren Wege und Verfahren. Hierbei wird auch die Forschung nach neuen Wirkstoffen und chemischen Verfahren auf sehr breiter Grundlage weiterbetrieben, wenn auch unter merklicher Steigerung der Forschungskosten. Jeder neue Wirk- stoff muB einen Fortschritt gegeniiber einem eingefUhrten Handelsprodukt dar- stellen. Wichtige Kriterien sind hierbei neben der Wirksamkeit die Umwelt- vertraglichkeit, unter anderem giinstigere toxikologische Eigenschaften, Sicher- heit in der Anwendung und Wirtschaftlichkeit. Wie schon in Band 3 (Beitrag Haug) dargestelIt, sind gerade auch diejenigen Kosten fUr Forschung und Ent- wick lung, die der langfristigen Unbedenklichkeit und Sicherheit der Produkte dienen, iiberproportional gestiegen.

In a very real sense, much of North American physiological plant ecol ogy began in the Basin and Range and has been researched there over the last four decades. However, we believe that this book may be the first attempt to bring together the full range of contemporary research into the fascinating plant biology of the Basin and Range Province. We have invited contributions from researchers presently working in and around the Province and asked them to review the major vegetation zones and distinctive environmental issues from a predominantly plant ecophysiological perspective. As researchers interested in plant physi ological and ecological processes, and in atmospheric processes affect ing vegetation, we have tended to emphasize the atmosphere, plant, soil continuum in structuring this book. After an introduction to the geography of the region, we deal with atmospheric processes and climates of the Great Basin, follow with chapters on the different vegetational zones, treated from ecophysiological perspectives, and then place emphasis on plant-soil relations. We have not treated plant animal interactions in the detail that the impacts of man and his domesticated animals on the desert ecosystem deserve. However we have included a review of a very promising technique (analysis of stable isotopes at natural abundance) for integration of these processes. We close with a compelling statement of the case for the Great Basin as a laboratory for climatic change research, prepared by a multidisciplinary team from the Desert Research Institute.