In the six years since the first edition of this book was published, the field of Structural Complexity has grown quite a bit. However, we are keeping this volume at the same basic level that it had in the first edition, and the only new result incorporated as an appendix is the closure under complementation of nondeterministic space classes, which in the previous edition was posed as an open problem. This result was already included in our Volume II, but we feel that due to the basic nature of the result, it belongs to this volume. There are of course other important results obtained during these last six years. However, as they belong to new areas opened in the field they are outside the scope of this fundamental volume. Other changes in this second edition are the update of some Bibliograph ical Remarks and references, correction of many mistakes and typos, and a renumbering of the definitions and results. Experience has shown us that this new numbering is a lot more friendly, and several readers have confirmed this opinion. For the sake of the reader of Volume II, where all references to Volume I follow the old numbering, we have included here a table indicating the new number corresponding to each of the old ones."

Logic plays a central conceptual role in modern mathematics. However, mathematical logic has grown into one of the most recondite areas of mathematics. As a result, most of modern logic is inaccessible to all but the specialist. This new book is a resource that provides a quick introduction and review of the key topics in logic for the computer scientist, engineer, or mathematician. Handbook of Logic and Proof Techniques for Computer Science presents the elements of modern logic, including many current topics, to the reader having only basic mathematical literacy. Computer scientists will find specific examples and important ideas such as axiomatics, recursion theory, decidability, independence, completeness, consistency, model theory, and P/NP completeness. The book contains definitions, examples and discussion of all of the key ideas in basic logic, but also makes a special effort to cut through the mathematical formalism, difficult notation, and esoteric terminology that is typical of modern mathematical logic.T This handbook delivers cogent and self-contained introductions to critical advanced topics, including: * Godel's completeness and incompleteness theorems * Methods of proof, cardinal and ordinal numbers, the continuum hypothesis, the axiom of choice, model theory, and number systems and their construction * Extensive treatment of complexity theory and programming applications * Applications to algorithms in Boolean algebra * Discussion of set theory and applications of logic The book is an excellent resource for the working mathematical scientist. The graduate student or professional in computer science and engineering or the systems scientist who needs to have a quick sketch of a key idea from logic will find it here in this self-contained, accessible, and easy-to-use reference.

During the last three decades, interest has increased significantly in the representation and manipulation of imprecision and uncertainty. Perhaps the most important technique in this area concerns fuzzy logic or the logic of fuzziness initiated by L. A. Zadeh in 1965. Since then, fuzzy logic has been incorporated into many areas of fundamental science and into the applied sciences. More importantly, it has been successful in the areas of expert systems and fuzzy control. The main body of this book consists of so-called IF-THEN rules, on which experts express their knowledge with respect to a certain domain of expertise. Fuzzy IF-THEN Rules in Computational Intelligence: Theory and Applications brings together contributions from leading global specialists who work in the domain of representation and processing of IF-THEN rules. This work gives special attention to fuzzy IF-THEN rules as they are being applied in computational intelligence. Included are theoretical developments and applications related to IF-THEN problems of propositional calculus, fuzzy predicate calculus, implementations of the generalized Modus Ponens, approximate reasoning, data mining and data transformation, techniques for complexity reduction, fuzzy linguistic modeling, large-scale application of fuzzy control, intelligent robotic control, and numerous other systems and practical applications. This book is an essential resource for engineers, mathematicians, and computer scientists working in fuzzy sets, soft computing, and of course, computational intelligence.

The subject of the present book is sub differential calculus. The main source of this branch of functional analysis is the theory of extremal problems. For a start, we explicate the origin and statement of the principal problems of sub differential calculus. To this end, consider an abstract minimization problem formulated as follows: x E X, f(x) --+ inf. Here X is a vector space and f : X --+ iR is a numeric function taking possibly infinite values. In these circumstances, we are usually interested in the quantity inf f( x), the value of the problem, and in a solution or an optimum plan of the problem (i. e. , such an x that f(x) = inf f(X", if the latter exists. It is a rare occurrence to solve an arbitrary problem explicitly, i. e. to exhibit the value of the problem and one of its solutions. In this respect it becomes necessary to simplify the initial problem by reducing it to somewhat more manageable modifications formulated with the details of the structure of the objective function taken in due account. The conventional hypothesis presumed in attempts at theoretically approaching the reduction sought is as follows. Introducing an auxiliary function 1, one considers the next problem: x EX, f(x) -l(x) --+ inf. Furthermore, the new problem is assumed to be as complicated as the initial prob lem provided that 1 is a linear functional over X, i. e.

Fuzzy technology has emerged as one of the most exciting new concepts available. Fuzzy Logic and its Applications... covers a wide range of the theory and applications of fuzzy logic and related systems, including industrial applications of fuzzy technology, implementing human intelligence in machines and systems. There are four main themes: intelligent systems, engineering, mathematical foundations, and information sciences. Both academics and the technical community will learn how and why fuzzy logic is appreciated in the conceptual, design and manufacturing stages of intelligent systems, gaining an improved understanding of the basic science and the foundations of human reasoning.

Mathematical Principles of Fuzzy Logic provides a systematic study of the formal theory of fuzzy logic. The book is based on logical formalism demonstrating that fuzzy logic is a well-developed logical theory. It includes the theory of functional systems in fuzzy logic, providing an explanation of what can be represented, and how, by formulas of fuzzy logic calculi. It also presents a more general interpretation of fuzzy logic within the environment of other proper categories of fuzzy sets stemming either from the topos theory, or even generalizing the latter. This book presents fuzzy logic as the mathematical theory of vagueness as well as the theory of commonsense human reasoning, based on the use of natural language, the distinguishing feature of which is the vagueness of its semantics.

Translated from the French, this book is an introduction to first-order model theory. Starting from scratch, it quickly reaches the essentials, namely, the back-and-forth method and compactness, which are illustrated with examples taken from algebra. It also introduces logic via the study of the models of arithmetic, and it gives complete but accessible exposition of stability theory.

This IMA Volume in Mathematics and its Applications RANDOM SETS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS is based on the proceedings of a very successful 1996 three-day Summer Program on "Application and Theory of Random Sets." We would like to thank the scientific organizers: John Goutsias (Johns Hopkins University), Ronald P.S. Mahler (Lockheed Martin), and Hung T. Nguyen (New Mexico State University) for their excellent work as organizers of the meeting and for editing the proceedings. We also take this opportunity to thank the Army Research Office (ARO), the Office ofNaval Research (0NR), and the Eagan, MinnesotaEngineering Center ofLockheed Martin Tactical Defense Systems, whose financial support made the summer program possible. Avner Friedman Robert Gulliver v PREFACE "Later generations will regard set theory as a disease from which one has recovered. " - Henri Poincare Random set theory was independently conceived by D.G. Kendall and G. Matheron in connection with stochastic geometry. It was however G.

Decision Criteria and Optimal Inventory Processes provides a theoretical and practical introduction to decision criteria and inventory processes. Inventory theory is presented by focusing on the analysis and processes underlying decision criteria. Included are many state-of-the-art criterion models as background material. These models are extended to the authors' newly developed fuzzy criterion models which constitute a general framework for the study of stochastic inventory models with special focus on the real world inventory theoretic reservoir operations problems. The applications of fuzzy criterion dynamic programming models are illustrated by reservoir operations including the integrated network of reservoir operation and the open inventory network problems. An interesting feature of this book is the special attention it pays to the analysis of some theoretical and applied aspects of fuzzy criteria and dynamic fuzzy criterion models, thus opening up a new way of injecting the much-needed type of non-cost, intuitive, and easy-to-use methods into multi-stage inventory processes. This is accomplished by constructing and optimizing the fuzzy criterion models developed for inventory processes. Practitioners in operations research, management science, and engineering will find numerous new ideas and strategies for modeling real world multi- stage inventory problems, and researchers and applied mathematicians will find this work a stimulating and useful reference.

This book has a rather strange history. It began in spring 1989, thirteen years after our Systems Science Department at SUNY-Binghamton was established, when I was asked by a group of students in our doctoral program to have a meeting with them. The spokesman of the group, Cliff Joslyn, opened our meeting by stating its purpose. I can closely paraphrase what he said: "We called this meeting to discuss with you, as Chairman of the Department, a fundamental problem with our systems science curriculum. In general, we consider it a good curriculum: we learn a lot of concepts, principles, and methodological tools, mathematical, computational, heu ristic, which are fundamental to understanding and dealing with systems. And, yet, we learn virtually nothing about systems science itself. What is systems science? What are its historical roots? What are its aims? Where does it stand and where is it likely to go? These are pressing questions to us. After all, aren't we supposed to carry the systems science flag after we graduate from this program? We feel that a broad introductory course to systems science is urgently needed in the curriculum. Do you agree with this assessment?" The answer was obvious and, yet, not easy to give: "I agree, of course, but I do not see how the situation could be alleviated in the foreseeable future.

1. Introduction . 1 2. Areas and Angles . . 6 3. Tessellations and Symmetry 14 4. The Postulate of Closest Approach 28 5. The Coexistence of Rotocenters 36 6. A Diophantine Equation and its Solutions 46 7. Enantiomorphy. . . . . . . . 57 8. Symmetry Elements in the Plane 77 9. Pentagonal Tessellations . 89 10. Hexagonal Tessellations 101 11. Dirichlet Domain 106 12. Points and Regions 116 13. A Look at Infinity . 122 14. An Irrational Number 128 15. The Notation of Calculus 137 16. Integrals and Logarithms 142 17. Growth Functions . . . 149 18. Sigmoids and the Seventh-year Trifurcation, a Metaphor 159 19. Dynamic Symmetry and Fibonacci Numbers 167 20. The Golden Triangle 179 21. Quasi Symmetry 193 Appendix I: Exercise in Glide Symmetry . 205 Appendix II: Construction of Logarithmic Spiral . 207 Bibliography . 210 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Concepts and Images is the result of twenty years of teaching at Harvard's Department of Visual and Environmental Studies in the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, a department devoted to turning out students articulate in images much as a language department teaches reading and expressing one self in words. It is a response to our students' requests for a "handout" and to l our colleagues' inquiries about the courses: Visual and Environmental Studies 175 (Introduction to Design Science), YES 176 (Synergetics, the Structure of Ordered Space), Studio Arts 125a (Design Science Workshop, Two-Dimension al), Studio Arts 125b (Design Science Workshop, Three-Dimensional),2 as well as my freshman seminars on Structure in Science and Art."

This text covers the parts of contemporary set theory relevant to other areas of pure mathematics. After a review of "naive" set theory, it develops the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms of the theory before discussing the ordinal and cardinal numbers. It then delves into contemporary set theory, covering such topics as the Borel hierarchy and Lebesgue measure. A final chapter presents an alternative conception of set theory useful in computer science.

This book appeared about ten years ago in Gennan. It started as notes for a course which I gave intermittently at the ETH over a number of years. Following repeated suggestions, this English translation was commissioned by Springer; they were most fortunate in finding translators whose mathemati cal stature, grasp of the language and unselfish dedication to the essentially thankless task of rendering the text comprehensible in a second language, both impresses and shames me. Therefore, my thanks go to Dr. Roberto Minio, now Darmstadt and Professor Charles Thomas, Cambridge. The task of preparing a La'JEX-version of the text was extremely daunting, owing to the complexity and diversity of the symbolisms inherent in the various parts of the book. Here, my warm thanks go to Barbara Aquilino of the Mathematics Department of the ETH, who spent tedious but exacting hours in front of her Olivetti. The present book is not primarily intended to teach logic and axiomat ics as such, nor is it a complete survey of what was once called "elementary mathematics from a higher standpoint." Rather, its goal is to awaken a certain critical attitude in the student and to help give this attitude some solid foun dation. Our mathematics students, having been drilled for years in high-school and college, and having studied the immense edifice of analysis, regrettably come away convinced that they understand the concepts of real numbers, Euclidean space, and algorithm."

Problems in Set Theory, Mathematical Logic and the Theory of Algorithms by I. Lavrov & L. Maksimova is an English translation of the fourth edition of the most popular student problem book in mathematical logic in Russian. It covers major classical topics in proof theory and the semantics of propositional and predicate logic as well as set theory and computation theory. Each chapter begins with 1-2 pages of terminology and definitions that make the book self-contained. Solutions are provided. The book is likely to become an essential part of curricula in logic.

Fundamentals of Fuzzy Sets covers the basic elements of fuzzy set theory. Its four-part organization provides easy referencing of recent as well as older results in the field. The first part discusses the historical emergence of fuzzy sets, and delves into fuzzy set connectives, and the representation and measurement of membership functions. The second part covers fuzzy relations, including orderings, similarity, and relational equations. The third part, devoted to uncertainty modelling, introduces possibility theory, contrasting and relating it with probabilities, and reviews information measures of specificity and fuzziness. The last part concerns fuzzy sets on the real line - computation with fuzzy intervals, metric topology of fuzzy numbers, and the calculus of fuzzy-valued functions. Each chapter is written by one or more recognized specialists and offers a tutorial introduction to the topics, together with an extensive bibliography.

The KK-theory of Kasparov is now approximately twelve years old; its power, utility and importance have been amply demonstrated. Nonethe less, it remains a forbiddingly difficult topic with which to work and learn. There are many reasons for this. For one thing, KK-theory spans several traditionally disparate mathematical regimes. For another, the literature is scattered and difficult to penetrate. Many of the major papers require the reader to supply the details of the arguments based on only a rough outline of proofs. Finally, the subject itself has come to consist of a number of difficult segments, each of which demands prolonged and intensive study. is to deal with some of these difficul Our goal in writing this book ties and make it possible for the reader to "get started" with the theory. We have not attempted to produce a comprehensive treatise on all aspects of KK-theory; the subject seems too vital to submit to such a treatment at this point. What seemed more important to us was a timely presen tation of the very basic elements of the theory, the functoriality of the KK-groups, and the Kasparov product."

In 1965 Juris Hartmanis and Richard E. Stearns published a paper "On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms." The field of complexity theory takes its name from this seminal paper and many of the major concepts and issues of complexity theory were introduced by Hartmanis in subsequent work. In honor of the contribution of Juris Hartmanis to the field of complexity theory, a special session of invited talks by Richard E. Stearns, Allan Borodin and Paul Young was held at the third annual meeting of the Structure in Complexity conference, and the first three chapters of this book are the final versions of these talks. They recall intellectual and professional trends in Hartmanis' contributions. All but one of the remainder of the chapters in this volume originated as a presentation at one of the recent meetings of the Structure in Complexity Theory Conference and appeared in preliminary form in the conference proceedings. In all, these expositions form an excellent description of much of contemporary complexity theory.

This volume constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-conference proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Curves and Surfaces, held in Avignon, in June 2010. The conference had the overall theme: "Representation and Approximation of Curves and Surfaces and Applications." The 39 revised full papers presented together with 9 invited talks were carefully reviewed and selected from 114 talks presented at the conference. The topics addressed by the papers range from mathematical foundations to practical implementation on modern graphics processing units and address a wide area of topics such as computer-aided geometric design, computer graphics and visualisation, computational geometry and topology, geometry processing, image and signal processing, interpolation and smoothing, scattered data processing and learning theory and subdivision, wavelets and multi-resolution methods.

The Summer School and Conference on Mathematical Logic and its Applications, September 24 - October 4, 1986, Druzhba, Bulgaria, was honourably dedicated to the 80-th anniversary of Kurt Godel (1906 - 1978), one of the greatest scientists of this (and not only of this) century. The main topics of the Meeting were: Logic and the Foundation of Mathematics; Logic and Computer Science; Logic, Philosophy, and the Study of Language; Kurt Godel's life and deed. The scientific program comprised 5 kinds of activities, namely: a) a Godel Session with 3 invited lecturers b) a Summer School with 17 invited lecturers c) a Conference with 13 contributed talks d) Seminar talks (one invited and 12 with no preliminary selection) e) three discussions The present volume reflects an essential part of this program, namely 14 of the invited lectures and all of the contributed talks. Not presented in the volltme remai ned si x of the i nvi ted lecturers who di d not submi t texts: Yu. Ershov - The Language of : -expressions and its Semantics; S. Goncharov - Mathematical Foundations of Semantic Programming; Y. Moschovakis - Foundations of the Theory of Algorithms; N. Nagornyj - Is Realizability of Propositional Formulae a GBdelean Property; N. Shanin - Some Approaches to Finitization of Mathematical Analysis; V. Uspensky - Algorithms and Randomness - joint with A. N.

Approach your problems from the right end It isn't that they can't see the solution. It is and begin with the answers. Then one day, that they can't see the problem. perhaps you will find the final question. G. K. Chesterton. The Scandal of Father 'The Hermit Clad in Crane Feathers' in R. Brown 'The point of a Pin'. van Gulik's The Chinese Maze Murders. Growing specialization and diversification have brought a host of monographs and textbooks on increasingly specialized topics. However, the "tree" of knowledge of mathematics and related fields does not grow only by putting forth new branches. It also happens, quite often in fact, that branches which were thought to be completely disparate are suddenly seen to be related. Further, the kind and level of sophistication of mathematics applied in various sciences has changed drastically in recent years: measure theory is used (non-trivially) in regional and theoretical economics; algebraic geometry interacts with physics; the Minkowsky lemma, coding theory and the structure of water meet one another in packing and covering theory; quantum fields, crystal defects and mathematical programming profit from homotopy theory; Lie algebras are relevant to filtering; and prediction and electrical engineering can use Stein spaces. And in addition to this there are such new emerging subdisciplines as "experimental mathematics", "CFD", "completely integrable systems", "chaos, synergetics and large-scale order", which are almost impossible to fit into the existing classification schemes. They draw upon widely different sections of mathematics.

This is the second volume of a two volume collection on Structural Complexity. This volume assumes as a prerequisite knowledge about the topics treated in Volume I, but the present volume itself is nearly self-contained. As in Volume I, each chapter of this book ends with a section entitled "Bibliographical Remarks", in which the relevant references for the chapter are briefly commented upon. These sections might also be of interest to those wanting an overview of the evolution of the field, as well as relevant related results which are not included in the text. Each chapter includes a section of exercises. The reader is encouraged to spend some time on them. Some results presented as exercises are occasionally used later in the text. A reference is provided for the most interesting and for the most useful exercises. Some exercises are marked with a * to indicate that, to the best knowledge of the authors, the solution has a certain degree of difficulty. Many topics from the field of Structural Complexity are not treated in depth, or not treated at all. The authors bear all responsibility for the choice of topics, which has been made based on the interest of the authors on each topic. Many friends and colleagues have made suggestions or corrections. In partic ular we would like to express our gratitude to Richard Beigel, Ron Book, Rafael Casas, Jozef Gruska, Uwe Schoning, Pekka Orponen, and Osamu Watanabe.

This volume has a dual significance to the ESPRIT Basic Research efforts towards forging strong links between European academic and industrial teams carrying out research, often interdisciplinary, at the forefront of Information Technology. Firstly, it consists of the proceedings of the "Symposium on Computational Logic" - held on the occasion of the 7th ESPRIT Conference Week in November 1990 - whose organisation was inspired by the work of Basic Research Action 3012 (COMPULOG). This is a consortium which has attracted world-wide interest, with requests for collaboration throughout Europe, the US and Japan. The work of COMPULOG acts as a focal point in this symposium which is broadened to cover the work of other eminent researchers in the field, thus providing a review of the state of the art in computational logic, new and important contributions in the field, but also a vision of the future. Secondly, this volume is the first of an ESPRIT Basic Research Series of publications of research results. It is expected that the quality of content and broad distribution of this series will have a major impact in making the advances achieved accessible to the world of academic and industrial research alike. At this time, all ESPRIT Basic Research Actions have completed their first year and it is most encouraging and stimulating to see the flow of results such as the fine examples presented in this symposium.

This book corresponds to a mathematical course given in 1986/87 at the University Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg. This work is primarily intended for graduate students. The following are necessary prerequisites : a few standard definitions in set theory, the definition of rational integers, some elementary facts in Combinatorics (maybe only Newton's binomial formula), some theorems of Analysis at the level of high schools, and some elementary Algebra (basic results about groups, rings, fields and linear algebra). An important place is given to exercises. These exercises are only rarely direct applications of the course. More often, they constitute complements to the text. Mostly, hints or references are given so that the reader should be able to find solutions. Chapters one and two deal with elementary results of Number Theory, for example : the euclidean algorithm, the Chinese remainder theorem and Fermat's little theorem. These results are useful by themselves, but they also constitute a concrete introduction to some notions in abstract algebra (for example, euclidean rings, principal rings ... ). Algorithms are given for arithmetical operations with long integers. The rest of the book, chapters 3 through 7, deals with polynomials. We give general results on polynomials over arbitrary rings. Then polynomials with complex coefficients are studied in chapter 4, including many estimates on the complex roots of polynomials. Some of these estimates are very useful in the subsequent chapters.

This book grew out of my interest in what is common to three disciplines: mathematics, philosophy, and history. The origins of Zermelo's Axiom of Choice, as well as the controversy that it engendered, certainly lie in that intersection. Since the time of Aristotle, mathematics has been concerned alternately with its assumptions and with the objects, such as number and space, about which those assumptions were made. In the historical context of Zermelo's Axiom, I have explored both the vagaries and the fertility of this alternating concern. Though Zermelo's research has provided the focus for this book, much of it is devoted to the problems from which his work originated and to the later developments which, directly or indirectly, he inspired. A few remarks about format are in order. In this book a publication is indicated by a date after a name; so Hilbert 1926, 178 refers to page 178 of an article written by Hilbert, published in 1926, and listed in the bibliography.

Since its inception by Professor Lotfi Zadeh about 18 years ago, the theory of fuzzy sets has evolved in many directions, and is finding applications in a wide variety of fields in which the phenomena under study are too complex or too ill-defined to be analyzed by conventional techniques. Thus, by providing a basis for a systematic approach to approximate reasoning and inexact inference, the theory of fuzzy sets may well have a substantial impact on scientific methodology in the years ahead, particularly in the realms of psychology, economics, engineering, law, medicine, decision-analysis, information retrieval, and artificial intelli gence. This volume consists of 24 selected papers invited by the editor, Professor Paul P. Wang. These papers cover the theory and applications of fuzzy sets, almost equal in number. We are very fortunate to have Professor A. Kaufmann to contribute an overview paper of the advances in fuzzy sets. One special feature of this volume is the strong participation of Chinese researchers in this area. The fact is that Chinese mathematicians, scientists and engineers have made important contributions to the theory and applications of fuzzy sets through the past decade. However, not until the visit of Professor A. Kaufmann to China in 1974 and again in 1980, did the Western World become fully aware of the important work of Chinese researchers. Now, Professor Paul Wang has initiated the effort to document these important contributions in this volume to expose them to the western researchers."