Seafloor surveying with acoustic remote sensing has become a powerful tool for researchers and professionals seeking knowledge about the structure and behavior of the seafloor. In particular, sidescan sonar is proving to be the preeminent technique, but its data is often difficult to interpret due to the physics of acoustic remote sensing, and to the varied geological processes at play. This handbook not only presents all the fundamentals but also explains how to interpret sidescan sonar imagery and bathymetry. It fully explores the most recent advances, both in the technology and in the knowledge of marine structures, and provides deep insights for interpretation and decision-making. Broadly expanded and updated from the previous 1997 Handbook of Seafloor Sonar Imagery, this handbook is indispensable to oceanographers, resource exploiters, telecommunications engineers, and marine researchers of all kinds."

This chapter has shown a small sample of GIS applications in economic devel- ment. GIS is a powerful tool for data analysis and presentation, and the economic development rami cations are truly signi cant. The speed at which data and stra- gies can be coordinated is clearly changing the way economic developers approach their job. There are a number of important trends that are likely to result in GIS becoming more pervasive in the economic development community. These include declining costs of GIS software, increased computing power, and the growth of Web-based GIS applications. There also has been increase in GIS skills among economic development professionals. References Bastian, L. (2002). Getting the best from the web. Area Development Site and Facility Planning, March 1-7. Accessed 5 September 2008. Batheldt, H. (2005). Geographies of production: growth regimes in spatial perspective (II) - kno- edge creation and growth in clusters. Progress in Human Geography, 29(2), 204-216. Bathelt,H.,Malmberg,A.,Maskell,P.(2004). Clustersandknowledge: localbuzz,globalpipelines and the process of knowledge creation. Progress in Human Geography, 28(1), 31-56. Bernthal, M., Regan, T. (2004). The economic impact of a NASCAR racetrack on a rural com- nity and region. Sports Marketing Quarterly, 13(1), 26-34. Blackwell, M., Cobb, S. Weinbert, D. (2002). The economic impact of educational institutions: Issues and methodology. Economic Development Quarterly, 16(1), 88-95. Blair, J. (1995). Local Economic Development, Analysis and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

to Soil Dynamics Arnold Verruijt Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands Arnold Verruijt Delft University of Technology 2628 CN Delft Netherlands [email protected] A CD-ROM accompanies this book containing programs for waves in piles, propagation of earthquakes in soils, waves in a half space generated by a line load, a point load, a strip load, or a moving load, and the propagation of a shock wave in a saturated elastic porous material. Computer programs are also available from the website http://geo.verruijt.net ISBN 978-90-481-3440-3 e-ISBN 978-90-481-3441-0 DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-3441-0 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2009940507 (c) Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, micro?lming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied speci?cally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface This book gives the material for an introductory course on Soil Dynamics, as given for about 10 years at the Delft University of Technology for students of civil en- neering, and updated continuously since 1994.

This book highlights and discusses recent developments that have contributed to an improved understanding of observed mantle heterogeneities and their relation to the thermo-chemical state of Earth's mantle, which ultimately holds the key to unlocking the secrets of the evolution of our planet. This series of topical reviews and original contributions address 4 themes. Theme 1 covers topics in geophysics, including global and regional seismic tomography, electrical conductivity and seismic imaging of mantle discontinuities and heterogeneities in the upper mantle, transition zone and lower mantle. Theme 2 addresses geochemical views of the mantle including lithospheric evolution from analysis of mantle xenoliths, composition of the deep Earth and the effect of water on subduction-zone processes. Theme 3 discusses geodynamical perspectives on the global thermo-chemical structure of the deep mantle. Theme 4 covers application of mineral physics data and phase equilibrium computations to infer the regional-scale thermo-chemical structure of the mantle.

Dynamics of Plate Tectonics and Mantle Convection, written by specialists in the field, gathers state-of-the-art perspectives on the dynamics of plate tectonics and mantle convection. Plate tectonics is a unifying theory of solid Earth sciences. In its initial form, it was a kinematic theory that described how the planet's surface is fragmented into several rigid lithospheric plates that move in relation to each other over the less viscous asthenosphere. Plate tectonics soon evolved to describe the forces that drive and resist plate movements. The Earth sciences community is now developing a new perspective that looks at plate tectonics and mantle convection as part of a single system. Why does our planet have plate tectonics, and how does it work? How does mantle convection drive the supercontinent cycle? How have tectono-convective modes evolved over the Earth's history? How did they shape the planet and impact life? Do other planets have mantle convection and tectonics? These are some of the fascinating questions explored in this book. This book started with a challenge from the editor to the authors to provide perspectives from their vantage point and open the curtain to the endeavors and stories behind the science.

Various effects of the atmosphere have to be considered in space geodesy and all of them are described and treated consistently in this textbook. Two chapters are concerned with ionospheric and tropospheric path delays of microwave and optical signals used by space geodetic techniques, such as the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), or Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR). It is explained how these effects are best reduced and modelled to improve the accuracy of space geodetic measurements. Other chapters are on the deformation of the Earth's crust due to atmospheric loading, on atmospheric excitation of Earth rotation, and on atmospheric effects on gravity field measurements from special satellite missions such as CHAMP, GRACE, and GOCE. All chapters have been written by staff members of the Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation at TU Wien who are experts in the particular fields.

This book presents the third volume of a complete development of the new structural classification of minerals, which is based on the internal crystal structure, and is therefore its natural classification. Because of the large domain of the mineral kingdom, this work is divided in three volumes, in which the minerals are ordered from the structurally simple to the more complex.

Audience: This work will be of particular interest to teachers and research workers of in mineralogy, and in inorganic crystal structures in academia.

This book is devoted to current advances in the field of nonlinear mathematical physics and modeling of critical phenomena that can lead to catastrophic events. Pursuing a multidisciplinary approach, it gathers the work of scientists who are developing mathematical and computational methods for the study and analysis of nonlinear phenomena and who are working actively to apply these tools and create conditions to mitigate and reduce the negative consequences of natural and socio-economic disaster risk. This book summarizes the contributions of the International School and Workshop on Nonlinear Mathematical Physics and Natural Hazards, organized within the framework of the South East Europe Network in Mathematical and Theoretical Physics (SEENET MTP) and supported by UNESCO. It was held at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences from November 28 to December 2, 2013. The contributions are divided into two major parts in keeping with the scientific program of the meeting. Among the topics covered in Part I (Nonlinear Mathematical Physics towards Critical Phenomena) are predictions and correlations in self organized criticality, space-time structure of extreme current and activity events in exclusion processes, quantum spin chains and integrability of many-body systems, applications of discriminantly separable polynomials, MKdV-type equations, and chaotic behavior in Yang-Mills theories. Part II (Seismic Hazard and Risk) is devoted to probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, seismic risk mapping, seismic monitoring, networking and data processing in Europe, mainly in South-East Europe. The book aims to promote collaboration at the regional and European level to better understand and model phenomena that can cause natural and socio-economic disasters, and to contribute to the joint efforts to mitigate the negative consequence of natural disasters. This collection of papers reflects contemporary efforts on capacity building through developing skills, exchanging knowledge and practicing mathematical methods for modeling nonlinear phenomena, disaster risk preparedness and natural hazards mitigation. The target audience includes students and researchers in mathematical and theoretical physics, earth physics, applied physics, geophysics, seismology and earthquake danger and risk mitigation.

The problem of cosmic ray (CR) geomagnetic effects came to the fore at the beg- ning of the 1930s after the famous expeditions by J. Clay onboard ship (Slamat) between the Netherlands and Java using an ionization chamber. Many CR la- tude expeditions were organized by the famous scientists and Nobel Laureates R. Millikan and A. Compton. From the obtained latitude curves it follows that CRs cannot be gamma rays (as many scientists thought at that time), but must be charged particles. From measurements of azimuthally geomagnetic effect at that time it also followed that these charged particles must be mostly positive (see Chapter 1, and for more details on the history of the problem see monographs of Irina Dorman, M1981, M1989). The ?rst explanations of obtained results were based on the simple dipole - proximation of the geomagnetic ?eld and the theory of energetic charged particles moving in dipole magnetic ?elds, developed in 1907 by C. Stormer ] to explain the aurora phenomenon. Let us note that it was made about 5 years before V. Hess discovered CRs, and received the Nobel Prize in 1936 together with K. Anderson (for the discovery of CR and positrons in CR)."

Two main areas of offshore activity are addressed in this book: Site investigation on assessment; and Applications and foundation engineering. The 37 contributions from a wide ranging group of international experts, are resulting from the Offshore Site Investigation and Foundation Behaviour Conference, London, U.K., September 1992. Adequate determination of site conditions can only be achieved by the integrated approach of using geological, geophysical and geotechnical data. Developments in data acquisition techniques are illustrated through case histories in the section on Geotechnical Sampling and Testing. In the section on Advanced Interpretation Techniques and Integrated Interpretations the state of the art of these topics is also illustrated by case histories. A review of foundation behaviour is presented in the section on Gravity Foundations, Foundation Performance Monitoring, Piling Research and Design Criteria. These topics are illustrated in the light of field experience and recent research, in particular that involving full-scale tests and monitoring. This book provides many illustrative figures and much pertinent information to exploration and marine geophysicists, petroleum and offshore engineers and for researchers working these fields.

Light scattering by densely packed inhomogeneous media is a particularly ch- lenging optics problem. In most cases, only approximate methods are used for the calculations. However, in the case where only a small number of macroscopic sc- tering particles are in contact (clusters or aggregates) it is possible to obtain exact results solving Maxwell's equations. Simulations are possible, however, only for a relativelysmallnumberofparticles,especiallyiftheirsizesarelargerthanthewa- length of incident light. The ?rst review chapter in PartI of this volume, prepared by Yasuhiko Okada, presents modern numerical techniques used for the simulation of optical characteristics of densely packed groups of spherical particles. In this case, Mie theory cannot provide accurate results because particles are located in the near ?eld of each other and strongly interact. As a matter of fact, Maxwell's equations must be solved not for each particle separately but for the ensemble as a whole in this case. The author describes techniques for the generation of shapes of aggregates. The orientation averaging is performed by a numerical integration with respect to Euler angles. The numerical aspects of various techniques such as the T-matrix method, discrete dipole approximation, the ?nite di?erence time domain method, e?ective medium theory, and generalized multi-particle Mie so- tion are presented. Recent advances in numerical techniques such as the grouping and adding method and also numerical orientation averaging using a Monte Carlo method are discussed in great depth.

by K. Lambeck, R. Sabadini and E. B08Chi Viscosity is one of the important material properties of the Earth, controlling tectonic and dynamic processes such as mantle convection, isostasy, and glacial rebound. Yet it remains a poorly resolved parameter and basic questions such as whether the planet's response to loading is linear or non-linear, or what are its depth and lateral variations remain uncertain. Part of the answer to such questions lies in laboratory observations of the rheology of terrestrial materials. But the extrapolation of such measurements from the laboratory environment to the geological environment is a hazardous and vexing undertaking, for neither the time scales nor the strain rates characterizing the geological processes can be reproduced in the laboratory. General rules for this extrapolation are that if deformation is observed in the laboratory at a particular temperature, deformation in geological environments will occur at a much reduced temperature, and that if at laboratory strain rates a particular deformation mechanism dominates over all others, the relative importance of possible mechanisms may be quite different at the geologically encountered strain rates. Hence experimental results are little more than guidelines as to how the Earth may respond to forces on long time scales.

Earth 's magnetic field is currently changing dramatically. Is the observed decrease of the dipole moment indicating a future polarity transition? What would be the effects of such a drastic change on system Earth? Can any positive or negative effects on our biosphere or even humans be expected?

This book gives a first overview about the geomagnetic field in general and serves as an introduction into geomagnetism. As the topic of the book covers a wide range of scientific disciplines, the first chapter summarises basic principles of geomagnetism and related fields including a historic overview, instruments and measurements, paleomagnetic fields, basics of dynamo theory, etc. The contributed chapters review major results of international activities aiming at understanding the causes and effects of geomagnetic field variations in view of the questions above.

Gas hydrates are ice-like crystalline substances that form a rigid cage of water molecules and entrap hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon gas by hydrogen bonding. Natural gas hydrate is primarily composed of water and methane. These are solid, crystalline, ice-like substances found in permafrost areas and deepwater basins around the world. They naturally occur in the pore space of marine sediments, where appropriate high pressure and low temperature conditions exist in an adequate supply of gas (mainly methane). Gas hydrates are considered as a potential non conventional energy resource. Methane hydrates are also recognized as, an influence on offshore platform stability, a major factor in climate change contributing to global warming and a significant contribution to the ocean carbon cycle. The proposed book treats various geophysical techniques in order to quantify the gas hydrate reserves and their impact on environment. The primary goal of this book is to provide the state of art for gas hydrate exploration. The target audiences for this book are non-specialist from different branches of science, graduate students and researchers.

This is the first book to cover actinide nano research. It is of interest both for fundamental research into the chemistry and physics of f-block elements as well as for applied researchers such as those studying the long-term safety of nuclear waste disposal and developing remediation strategies.

The authors cover important issues of the formation of actinide nano-particles, their properties and structure, environmental behavior of colloids and nanoparticles related to the safe disposal of nuclear wastes, modeling and advanced methods of characterization at the nano-scale.

TECTONlCS AND PHYSICS Geology, although rooted in the laws of physics, rarely has been taught in a manner designed to stress the relations between the laws and theorems of physics and the postulates of geology. The same is true of geophysics, whose specialties (seismology, gravimetIy, magnetics, magnetotellurics) deal only with the laws that govern them, and not with those that govern geology's postulates. The branch of geology and geophysics called tectonophysics is not a formalized discipline or subdiscipline, and, therefore, has no formal laws or theorems of its own. Although many recent books claim to be textbooks in tectonophysics, they are not; they are books designed to explain one hypothesis, just as the present book is designed to explain one hypothesis. The textbook that comes closest to being a textbook of tectonophysics is Peter 1. Wyllie's (1971) book, The Dynamic Earth. Teachers, students, and practitioners of geology since the very beginning of earth science teaching have avoided the development of a rigorous (but not rigid) scientific approach to tectonics, largely because we earth scientists have not fully understood the origin of the features with which we are dealing. This fact is not at all surprising when one considers that the database for hypotheses and theories of tectonics, particularly before 1960, has been limited to a small part of the exposed land area on the Earth's surface."

This book sheds valuable new light on the genetic mineralogy of lower-mantle diamonds and syngenetic minerals. It presents groundbreaking experimental results revealing the melting relations of ultrabasic and basic associations and a physicochemical peritectic mechanism of their evolution. The experimental investigations included here reveal the key multicomponent, multiphase oxide-silicate-carbonate-carbon parental media for lower-mantle diamonds and syngenetic minerals. Consequently, readers will find extensive information on the diamond-parental oxide-silicate-carbonate-carbon melts-solutions that supplement the general features of lower-mantle diamond genesis and the most efficient ultrabasic-basic evolution. The experimental results on physicochemical aspects, combined with analytical mineralogy data, make it possible to create a generalized composition diagram of the diamond-parental melts-solutions, there by completing the mantle-carbonatite concept for the genesis of lower-mantle diamonds and syngenetic minerals. This book addresses the needs of all researchers studying the Earth's deepest structure, super-deep mineral formation including diamonds, and magmatic evolution.

This book presents review papers and research articles focusing on the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in Sichuan, China, discussing cross-disciplinary and multiple thematic aspects of modern seismological, geophysical, geological and stochastic methodology and technology. Resulting from international and regional earthquake research and disaster mitigation collaborations, and written by international authors from multiple institutions and disciplines, it describes methods and techniques in earthquake science based on investigations of the Wenchuan earthquake. It also includes extensive reference lists to aid further research. The book helps both senior researchers and graduate students in earthquake science to broaden their horizons in data analysis, numerical modeling and structural retrieval for the tectonic, geological, geophysical and mechanical interpretation of the 2008 M8 Wenchuan earthquake to support a global and regional cooperation for preparedness, and the mitigation and management of seismic risk.

This book offers an in-depth study of two well-known models of "avalanche" dynamics, modified minimally by the inclusion of relaxation. Many complex systems respond to continuous inputs of energy by accumulation of stress over time, interrupted by sudden energy releases called avalanches. The first model studied is the viscoelastic interface driven over disorder, which is shown to display the fundamental features of friction. In the mean-field limit, the friction force derived semi-analytically is compatible with laboratory experiments (displaying both velocity weakening and contact aging). In two dimensions, large-scale numerical simulations are in good agreement with the basic features of real earthquakes (Gutenberg-Richter Law, aftershock migration). The second model is a non-Markovian variant of Directed Percolation, in which we observe that the universality class is only partly modified by relaxation, a promising finding with respect to our first model.

Der bekannte Astronom Karl Schwarzschild (1873-1916) gilt als der Begr}nder der Astrophysik und als hervorragender Forscher mit einer erstaunlichen Bandbreite seiner Interessen. Arbeiten zur Himmelsmechanik, Elektrodynamik und Relativit{tstheorie weisen ihn als vorz}glichen Mathematiker und Physiker seiner Zeit aus. Untersuchungen zur Photographischen Photometrie, Optik und Spektroskopie zeigen den versierten Beobachter, der sein Me instrument beherrscht. Schlie lich arbeitete Schwarzschild als Astrophysiker und an Sternatmosph{ren, Kometen, Struktur und Dynamikvon Sternsystemen. Die in seinem kurzen Leben entstandene F}lle von wissenschafltichen Arbeiten ist in drei B{nden der Gesamtausgabe gesammelt, erg{nzt durch biographisches Material und ein Essay des Nobelpreistr{gers S. Chandrasekhar und Annotationen von Fachleuten in jedem der drei B{nde.

Seismic waves - generated both by natural earthquakes and by man-made sources - have produced an enormous amount of information about the Earth's interior. In classical seismology, the Earth is modeled as a sequence of uniform horizontal layers (or spherical shells) having different elastic properties and one determines these properties from travel times and dispersion of seismic waves. The Earth, however, is not made of horizontally uniform layers, and classic seismic methods can take large-scale inhomogeneities into account. Smaller-scale irregularities, on the other hand, require other methods. Observations of continuous wave trains that follow classic direct S waves, known as coda waves, have shown that there are heterogeneities of random size scattered randomly throughout the layers of the classic seismic model. This book focuses on recent developments in the area of seismic wave propagation and scattering through the randomly heterogeneous structure of the Earth, with emphasis on the lithosphere. The presentation combines information from many sources to present a coherent introduction to the theory of scattering in acoustic and elastic materials and includes analyses of observations using the theoretical methods developed. The second edition especially includes new observational facts such as the spatial variation of medium inhomogeneities and the temporal change in scattering characteristics and recent theoretical developments in the envelope synthesis in random media for the last ten years. Mathematics is thoroughly rewritten for improving the readability. Written for advanced undergraduates or beginning graduate students of geophysics or planetary sciences, this book should also be of interest to civil engineers, seismologists, acoustical engineers, and others interested in wave propagation through inhomogeneous elastic media.

[the text below needs editing and we must be careful not to say things about Dan Brown's book that could get Springer in legal trouble] Dan Brown's novel, The Da Vinci Code, was first published in 2003; its sales have reached 40 million worldwide. The book mixes a small spice of fact into a large dollop of fiction to create an entertaining novel of intrigue, adventure, romance, danger and conspiracy, which have been imaginatively worked together to cook up the successful bestseller. Most interest in the book's origins has centred on the sensational religious aspects. Dan Brown has written: 'All of the art, architecture, secret rituals, secret societies, all of that is historical fact.' This gives an air of authenticity to the book. Brown has, however, made up the religious doctrines, or based them on questionable accounts by others. The locations of the actions of The Da Vinci Code are not, however, made up. The present book is the scientific story behind the scene of several of the book's actions that take place on the axis of France that passes through Paris. The Paris Meridian is the name of this location. It is the line running north-south through the astronomical observatory in Paris. One of the original intentions behind the founding of the Paris Observatory was to determine and measure this line. The French government financed the Paris Academy of Sciences to do so in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries. It employed both astronomers - people who study and measure the stars - and geodesists - people who study and measure the Earth. This book is about what they did and why. It is a true story behind Dan Brown's fiction. This is the first English language presentation of this historical material. It is attractively written and it features the story of the community of scientists who created the Paris Meridian. They knew each other well - some were members of the same families, in one case of four generations. Like scientists everywhere they collaborated and formed alliances; they also split into warring factions and squabbled. They travelled to foreign countries, somehow transcending the national and political disputes, as scientists do now, their eyes fixed on ideas of accuracy, truth and objective, enduring values - save where the reception given to their own work is concerned, when some became blind to high ideals and descended into petty politics. To establish the Paris Meridian, the scientists endured hardship, survived danger and gloried in amazing adventures during a time of turmoil in Europe, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic War between France and Spain. Some were accused of witchcraft. Some of their associates lost their heads on the guillotine. Some died of disease. Some won honour and fame. One became the Head of State in France, albeit for no more than a few weeks. Some found dangerous love in foreign countries. One scientist killed in self defence when attacked by a jealous lover, another was himself killed by a jealous lover, a third brought back a woman to France and then jilted her, whereupon she joined a convent. The scientists worked on practical problems of interest to the government and to the people. They also worked on one of the important intellectual problems of the time, a problem of great interest to their fellow scientists all over the world, nothing less than the theory of universal gravitation. They succeeded in their intellectual work, while touching politics and the affairs of state. Their endeavours have left their marks on the landscape, in art and in literature.

The material in this book is based predominantly on my recent work. It is the first monograph on the subject, though some support material may overlap other monographs. The investigation of wave packets and their bi furcations is very interesting, and useful theoretically and in practice, not only in geophysical fluid dynamics, which is the field to which the theory is being applied here, but also in other fields in mathematics and the natural sciences. I hope that the applied mathematician will find reading this book worthwhile, especially the material on the behavior of highly nonlinear dy namic systems. However, it is my belief that applying the concepts and methods developed here to other fields will be both interesting and con structive, since there are numerous phenomena in other areas of physics that share the characteristics of those in geophysical fluid dynamics. The theory developed here provides an effective tool to investigate the structure and the structural changes of dynamic systems in physics. Applications of the theory in geophysical fluid dynamics are an example of its usefulness and effectiveness. Some of the results presented here give us more insight into the nature of geophysical fluids. Moreover, the material is presented systematically and developmentally. Necessary basic knowledge is provided to make the book more readable for graduate students and researchers in such fields as applied mathematics, geophysical fluid dynamics, atmospheric sciences, and physical oceanogra phy."

This collection of papers will address the question "What is the Magnetospheric Cusp?" and what is its role in the coupling of the solar wind to the magnetosphere as well as its role in the processes of particle transport and energization within the magnetosphere. The cusps have traditionally been described as narrow funnel-shaped regions that provide a focus of the Chapman-Ferraro currents that flow on the magnetopause, a boundary between the cavity dominated by the geomagnetic field (i.e., the magnetosphere) and the external region of the interplanetary medium. Measurements from a number of recent satellite programs have shown that the cusp is not confined to a narrow region near local noon but appears to encompass a large portion of the dayside high-latitude magnetosphere. It appears that the cusp is a major source region for the production of energetic charged particles for the magnetosphere. This book will be of great interest to scientists in Space Physics as well as to those working in research organizations in governments and industries, university departments of physics, astronomy, space physics, and geophysics. Part of this book has already been published in a journal.

This is a compilation of manuscripts on mineral and thermal waters of different areas of the world.
This special volume is devoted to the 41st Meeting of the This is a compilation of manuscripts on mineral and thermal waters of different areas of the world.
This special volume is devoted to the 41st Meeting of the Commission on Mineral and Thermal Waters of International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH-CMTW) held in Cairo, Egypt, in October 2009. The presentations collected and presented in this volume show the variety of aspects of mineral and thermal waters occurrence and utilization in different countries of the world with a special focus on Egypt, Iran, Ukraine, Poland, Russia and Australia.