For centuries, knowledge has been thought to be the key to human progress of all kinds and has dominated Western culture. But what if knowing has now become an impediment to further human development? This text is concerned with the practical consideration of how to reconstruct our world when modernist ideas have been refuted and many social problems appear insoluble. The authors suggest that we should give up knowing in favour of performed activity. They show how to reject the knowing paradigm in practice and present the many positive implications this has for social and educational policy. Over the past two decades, a postmodern critique of the modern conception of knowing and its institutionalized practice has emerged. To many, this is a dangerous threat to the tradition of liberal education, strengthened by recent prestigious voices from the physical and natural sciences. The book challenges even the postmodernists themselves, rejecting the reform of knowing for a totally new performatory form of life. They support their argument with a new reading of Lev Vygotsky and Ludwig Wittgenstein.

This book stems from more than 25 years of systematic research into the experience of learning undertaken by a research team trying to account for the obvious differences between more or less successful instances of learning in educational institutions. The book offers an answer in terms of the discovery of critical differences in the structure of the learner's awareness and critical differences in the meaning of the learner's world. The authors offer a detailed account of the empirical findings that give rise to theoretical insights, and discuss the particular form of qualitative research that has been employed and developed.
The form of learning that is the object of study is considered to be the most fundamental form -- namely a change in the learner's way of seeing, experiencing, handling, and understanding aspects of the world. The need for rigorous analysis of learning of specific subject matter, the individual construction of knowledge, and its social and cultural embeddedness -- the defining features of rival approaches into research on learning -- are reconciled from the approach adopted here into an intertwined and whole experience of learning. The learner's experience is always one of learning something, in some way, and in some context; by holding the learner's experience of learning as the focus of study throughout -- and not studying the learning of the content and the acts and the context as separate and distinct focuses -- the content, the act, and the context remain united as constituents of the learner's experience.
By empirically revealing critical differences in the ways of experiencing these aspects of learning, and by developing a theoretical framework for the dynamics through which change comes about in the learner's awareness, this book gradually leads the reader to a powerful new view of learning. Equipped with the analytical tools and conceptual apparatus to be found in this book, the reader will be empowered to learn and to assist others to learn by creating environments conducive to the most fundamental form of learning: experiencing aspects of the world in new ways.

In recent years there has been a growing interest in the ideas surrounding reflective practice, specifically in the areas of learning in management, development and education. This interest has developed in a growing number of professional fields thus making for very diverse understandings of what can be regarded as complex approaches to learning. In order to understand how reflective practice can support and aid learning it is helpful to acknowledge how we learn. First, all learners start from their own position of knowledge and have their own set of experiences to draw upon. Second, learning is contextual, something which managers need to acknowledge. To make sense and achieve a deep understanding of material and experiences, one needs to relate new information to existing knowledge and experiences. This is best achieved through a process of reflection. Indeed, the underlying rationale for the chapters in this publication is to explore how the role of practice, reflection, and critical reflection are understood and developed within a learning process which is supported through the application of reflective tools. This book recognises and makes explicit the diverse, yet inclusive nature of the field. By including a range of contributions from both subject specific disciplines and professional contexts, it seeks to enable the reader in documenting some of the current uses of reflection and critical reflection, while also illustrating some of the newer methods in use, as well as the current contributions to thinking in the subject domain. Through this publication the editor and authors hope to provide a basis from which continuing professional development and education can be enhanced. This book was originally published as a special issue of Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives.

In recent years, educators have become increasingly concerned with students' attempts to manage their own learning and achievement efforts through activities that influence the instigation, direction and persistence of those efforts. In 1989, Zimmerman and Schunk edited the first book devoted to this topic. They assembled key theorists offering a range of perspectives on how students self-regulate their academic functioning. One purpose of that volume was to provide theoretical direction to ongoing as well as nascent efforts to explore academic self-regulatory processes. Since that date, there has been an exponential surge in research. This second volume on academic self-regulation offers the fruits of the first generation of research. It also addresses a number of key issues that have arisen since then such as how self-regulation differs from such related constructs as motivation and metacognition, and whether students can be taught self-regulatory skills. The contributors reveal an interesting, uplifting, and at times, disturbing picture of how students grapple with the day-to-day problems of achieving in circumstances with inherent limitations and obstacles. This volume provides insight into the source of students' capabilities to surmount adversities -- the origins of their self-initiated processes designed to improve learning, motivation, and achievement.
The text is organized on the basis of a conceptual framework that analyzes academic self-regulation into four major dimensions. That model is presented in the first chapter, and key processes that influence each of these dimensions are discussed by prominent researchers in the chapters that follow. Because each chapter is written to follow a common format, this work provides a level of continuity and parsimony normally found only in authored textbooks.

Social anthropologist Jean Lave and computer scientist Etienne Wenger's seminal Situated Learning helped change the fields of cognitive science and pedagogy by approaching learning from a novel angle. Traditionally, theories of learning and education had focused on processes of cognition - the mental processes of knowledge formation that occur within an individual. Lave and Wenger chose to look at learning not as an individual process, but a social one. As so often with the creative thinking process, a small, simple shift in emphasis was all that was required to show things in an entirely different light. What Situated Learning illustrated - and emphasized - was that learning is dependent on its social situation. Even though the most effective way to learn is through interaction with experts and peers in a community organized around a common interest, the traditional cognitive learning model failed to account for the way in which learners interact with their 'community of practice.' The new hypothesis that Lave and Wenger developed was that learning can be seen as a continuously evolving set of relationships situated within a social context. This allowed Lave and Wenger to place discussions of apprenticeship and workplace learning on a new footing - and led in turn to the book's impressive impact in business and management scholarship.

Originally published in 1989, this title presents a view of adaptive behaviour which integrates both evolutionary and psychological perspectives on learning. The study of learning, and in particular conditioning, had evolved in isolation from the rest of the biological sciences, and until the late 1980s had largely ignored the fact that learning processes are adaptive functions subject to the pressures of evolutionary selection. This text is designed to give a thorough insight into contemporary views of learning mechanisms, at the same time incorporating an evolutionary perspective on the function and performance of learning. Graham Davey gives a detailed introduction to evolutionary approaches to behaviour and basic learning phenomena such as Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning. He also provides a comparative introduction to both learning and performance aspects of conditioning. He covers ecological approaches to adaptive behaviour (e.g. foraging theory), specialized learning processes such as concept formation, spatial learning, and language learning. Innovative in its integration of ecological and evolutionary approaches with more traditional associative views of learning, the book introduces the reader to learning in a very wide variety of species other than the traditional laboratory rat and pigeon. It will be valuable to anyone with a general interest in animal behaviour, and also to those with a specific interest in learning, adaptive behaviour, and evolutionary approaches to behaviour.

Useful to researchers as well as practitioners looking for guidance on designing automated instruction systems, this book provides a snapshot of the state-of-the-art in this research area. In so doing, it focuses on the two critical problems: first, diagnosis of the student's current level of understanding or performance; and second, selection of the appropriate intervention that will transition the student toward expert performance. Containing a comprehensive set of principled approaches to automated instruction, diagnosis, and remediation, it is the first volume on the topic to provide specific, detailed guidance on how to develop these systems. Leading researchers and practitioners represented in this book address the following questions in each chapter: * What is your approach to cognitive diagnosis for automated instruction? * What is the theoretical basis of your approach? * What data support the utility of the approach? * What is the range of applicability of your approach? * What knowledge engineering or task analysis methods are required to support your approach? Referring to automated instruction as instruction that is delivered on any microprocessor-based system, the contributors to -- and editors of -- this book believe that is it possible for automated instructional systems to be more effective than they currently are. Specifically, they argue that by using artificial intelligence programming techniques, it is possible for automated instructional systems to emulate the desirable properties of human tutors in one-on-one instruction.

'Sarma's book may be the most important work on education written this century' - Skeptic As the head of Open Learning at MIT, Sanjay Sarma has a daunting job description: to fling open the doors of the MIT experience for the benefit of the wider world. But if you're going to undertake such an ambitious project, you must first ask: How exactly does learning work? What conditions are most conducive? Are our traditional classroom methods - lecture, homework, test, repeat - actually effective? And if not, which techniques are? Grasp takes readers across multiple frontiers, from fundamental neuroscience to cognitive psychology and beyond, as it explores the future of learning. For instance: * Scientists are studying the role of forgetting, exposing it not as a simple failure of memory but a critical weapon in our learning arsenal * New developments in neuroimaging are helping us understand how reading works in the brain. It's become possible to identify children who might benefit from specialised dyslexia interventions - before they learn to read * Many schools have begun converting to flipped classrooms, in which you watch a lesson at home, then do your 'homework' in class Along the way, Sarma debunks long-held views such as the noxious idea of 'learning styles,' while equipping readers with a set of practical tools for absorbing and retaining information across a lifetime of learning. He presents a vision for learning that's more inclusive and democratic - revealing a world bursting with powerful learners, just waiting for the chance they deserve. Drawing from the author's experience as an educator and the work of researchers and educational innovators at MIT and beyond, Grasp offers scientific and practical insight, promising not just to inform and entertain readers but to open their minds.

Cognitive Load Measurement and Application provides up-to-date research and theory on the functional role of cognitive load measurement and its application in multimedia and visual learning. Grounded in a sound theoretical framework, this edited volume introduces methodologies and strategies that effect high-quality cognitive load measurement in learning. Case studies are provided to aid readers in comprehension and application within various learning situations, and the book concludes with a review of the possible future directions of the discipline.

Originally published in 1994. Until this book was published, the application of computers to educational practice has received little input from psychological theory. Computers and the Collaborative Experience of Learning locates this topic within the contemporary movement of socio-cultural theory, drawing on the writing of Vygotsky and others. Charles Crook reviews psychological approaches to cognition and learning, in so far as they implicitly direct strategy in respect of computer-based learning. He also takes a novel stance in considering how new technology can enhance rather than undermine the social experience of learning and instruction, and can allow teachers to achieve more in the classroom. He argues that computers can provide the conditions for effective collaboration and enhance the social dimension of education. With its unique blend of theory and practice, from the primary school to university settings, Computers and the Collaborative Experience of Learning will be of interest to educational psychologists, as well as psychologists studying group processes, cognition and development.

Originally published in 1977, this book reports the proceedings of a conference sponsored by the Navy Personnel Research and Development Center. The one common thread running through all of the formal papers and dialogue was that the knowledge a person already possesses is the principal determiner of what that individual can learn from an educational experience. These questions were addressed: How is knowledge organized? How does knowledge develop? How is knowledge retrieved and used? What instructional techniques promise to facilitate the acquisition of new knowledge? The kinds of answers provided are characterized by their as well as by their specificity. Accordingly, the volume should be of interest to both the generalist and the specialist.

The ability to learn is of crucial importance in human life, but understanding this ability has proved to be difficult. There have been many attempts to formulate scientific theories based on both animal experiments and human experience; and these have been applied to education and the treatment of psychological disturbance, with a certain amount of success. Originally published in 1984, this incisive guide to the research and its outcomes provides the background to one of the most debated topics in psychology today. Learning Theory and Behaviour Modification introduces the work of major figures, such as Pavlov and Skinner, which has strongly influenced theories in educational and clinical psychology, and formed the basis of the techniques known as 'behaviour modification'. As well as giving examples of these techniques the author relates new ideas about the scope and limits of behaviour modification to recent changes in the views of learning theorists. How much can experiments on animals tell us about human psychology?

Originally published in 1976, this title is an edited volume and reflects the major approaches being taken in structural learning at the time. Chapter 1 deals with the basic question of whether competence (knowledge) should be characterized in terms of rules (automata), on the one hand, or associations on the other. The bulk of Chapter 2 is devoted to a series of earlier experiments on rule learning by the editor and his associates. The two contributions in Chapter 3 deal with graph theoretical models. Piagetian models constitute the subject of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 deals with attempts to stimulate human behaviour with a computer. Chapter 6 ranges over a wide variety of competence models, with particular reference to logic and mathematics. In Chapter 7 the editor proposes a new theory of structural learning, together with some empirical results.

Originally published in 1973, this book was published in two volumes. In the first volume, the author describes what he sees as the rudiments of three deterministic partial theories of structural learning. The first involves competence, partial theories which deal only with the problem of how to account for the various kinds of behavior of which people are typically capable. Special attention is given to mathematical competence. Nothing is said about learning or performance. The second partial theory is concerned with motivation, learning, and performance under idealized conditions, and is obtained from the first partial theory by imposing further structure on it. This theory says nothing about memory of the limited capacity of human subjects to process information. ... The final theory is obtained from the second by making additional assumptions, which bring memory and finite information processing into the picture. The theory is still partial, however, since no attempt is made to deal with certain ultra-short-term behavioral phenomena which appear to depend directly on particular physiological characteristics.

Originally published in 1995, within the previous decade there had been significant developments in our understanding of the learning and motivation, together with the conceptual and cognitive development, of older adults. This understanding had been enhanced by findings from longitudinal studies which were now becoming available. These findings demonstrated the gains that had been made in research. In the past, inappropriately conceived studies have led to the perpetuation of myths and stereotypes about the intellectual development of older people. Special attention is paid in this book to changing perceptions of ageing and intelligence, learning aptitude, memory and intelligence testing. The important topic of ageing and wisdom is also discussed.

How can teachers provide the best learning experiences for students with varying skills and abilities? Teachers have many common needs. Most work in a situation of high demands and expectations, but against a background that reflects a reduced valuation of their efforts. Originally published in 1993, the authors share some thoughts about contemporary teaching practice and suggest an approach - Process-Based Instruction - for a coherent cognitive education programme that draws on the literatures of educational psychology and educational theory and practice. The book is supported throughout with exercises and illustrations designed to help teachers apply new strategies to classroom practice, particularly in areas of the curriculum concerning problem solving.

By establishing a conceptual framework and a common language for educators to work together, this volume attempts to answer the challenge facing all teachers -- how can students improve the quality of their thinking? Methods of strengthening the thought process include: helping students learn to monitor their attention and commitments; asking questions that require students to organize, analyze, and integrate information; setting tasks that involve complex processes such as problem solving and research; and modeling and reinforcing fair-mindedness.

Originally published in 1974, the second volume of four (Logical Inference: Underlying Operations) provides a process-model for the solution of certain syllogistic reasoning problems. Testable predictions of the model are easily derived, and the available evidence supports the model's description of the real-time mental steps mediating these logical abilities. A theory of development, connected to the model, makes these volumes all the more important for cognitive, developmental, and educational psychologists, as well as educators and linguists.

Originally published in 1993, the study of cognitive development in children had moved from a focus on the intellectual processes of the individual studied in relative isolation, as in the classic work of Piaget, to a concern in the 1970s and 1980s with social cognition characterized by Vygotsky's views. In the years following, the trend toward an understanding of the situated nature of cognition had evolved even further and the extent to which thinking and knowing are inextricably linked to contextual constraints was at last being defined. Experts of international repute, the authors of this important book examine the recent literature on situated cognition in children. They explain contextual sensitivity in relation to ecological theories of cognition, and contrast intuitive reasoning in mathematical and other scientific domains with the failure of such reasoning in formal school contexts. Centrally concerned with the question of generalizability and transfer of knowledge from one situation to another, the contributors point to practical implications for understanding how intellectual competence can be made to generalize between "informal" and "formal" situations.

First published in 1991. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

For over a century and a quarter, the science of learning has expanded at an increasing rate and has achieved the status of a mature science. It has developed powerful methodologies and applications. The rise of this science has been so swift that other learning texts often overlook the fact that, like other mature sciences, the science of learning has developed a large body of knowledge. The Science of Learning comprehensively covers this knowledge in a readable and highly systematic manner. Methodology and application are discussed when relevant; however, these aspects are better appreciated after the reader has a firm grasp of the scientific knowledge of learning processes. Accordingly, the book begins with the most fundamental and well-established principles of the science and builds on the preceding material toward greater complexity. The connections of the material with other sciences, especially its sister science, biology, are referenced throughout. Through these frequent references to biology and evolution, the book keeps in the forefront the recognition that the principles of learning apply to all animals. Thus, in the final section the book brings together all learning principles studied in research settings by demonstrating their relevance to both animals and humans in their natural settings. For animals this is the untamed environment of their niches; for humans it is any social environment, for Homo sapiens is the social and learning animal par excellence.

First published in 1982. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

The Seven Laws of Teaching by John Milton Gregory Foreword "The Seven Disciplines of Highly Effective Teachers" by Douglas Wilson Evaluation Tools and Study Questions by Dr. Larry Stephenson Don't miss this vital book for teachers For decades, John Milton Gregory's The Seven Laws of Teaching has been an essential guide for classical educators everywhere, whether in schools, at home, in co-ops, or online. You've never seen an edition like this: In 1954, Baker Book House published a revised edition of the text that "abridged" much of the Christian content and emphasis: we've restored The Seven Laws of Teaching to its original 1886 text. Not only does your Canon Press version give the unabridged first edition text, but we've also added a number of invaluable tools not available anywhere else: A powerful forward by Douglas Wilson, "The Seven Disciplines of Highly Effective Teachers," Study Questions after each chapter by Dr. Larry Stephenson and five helpful appendices: Appendix A: List of the Seven Laws of Teaching. Appendix B: Self-Assessment Tool for Teachers by Dr. Stephenson Appendix C: Sample Teacher Observation Form by Dr. Stephenson Appendix D: Answers to the Study Questions Appendix E: Endnotes on Historical Figures

First published in 1981. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

Progress in Psychological Science around the World, Volumes 1 and 2, present the main contributions from the 28th International Congress of Psychology, held in Beijing in 2004. These expert contributions include the Nobel laureate address, the Presidential address, and the Keynote and State-of-the-Art lectures. They are written by international leaders in psychology from 25 countries and regions around the world. The authors present a variety of approaches and perspectives that reflect cutting-edge advances in psychological science. This first volume addresses neural, cognitive, and developmental issues in contemporary psychology. It includes chapters on learning, memory, and motivation, cognitive neuroscience, and attention, emotion, and language, and covers life-span developmental psychology. Volume 2 goes on to discuss social and applied issues in modern psychology. Progress in Psychological Science around the World, with its broad coverage of psychological research and practice, and its highly select group of world renowned authors, will be invaluable for researchers, professionals, teachers, and students in the field of psychology.