Eine der bedenklichsten StOrungen des letzten Jahrzehntes ist die Erschiitterung der Wahrungen fast aller Lander und die dadurch eingetretene Unzuverlassigkeit des allgemeinen Wertmessers, des Geldes. Die Folgen davon sind: Hemmnisse, Gefahren und Unordnung im Wirt schaftsle ben. 1m stark wahrungskranken Lande selbst ist alles wirtschaftliche Rechnen ohne Halt und Sicherheit. Erst durch die Heranziehung einer bestandigen Werteinheit als Kalkulations- und Vergleichsbasis wird es wieder moglich, die mit der Beriihrung von schwankendem Papiergeld verbundenen Gefahren (Valutarisiken) zu bestimmen und zu vermeiden. In welcher Weise diese Risikodeckung vor sich geht, soll 1m ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit beschrieben werden. Die dabei zur Ver wendung kommenden Zahlenbeispiele wurden dem fUr unsere Zwecke sich gut eignenden schweizerischen AuBenhandel der Nachkriegszeit entnommen. Als stabile Rechnungsgrundlage ist also durchwegs der Schweizerfranken angenommen worden, wahrend die anderen Valuten (M., Lit.,, f.Fr.) yom schweizerischen Standpunkt aus betrachtet, d. h. als eine dem Risiko der Wertunbestandigkeit ausgesetzte Ware aufgefaBt werden. Die gewahlte feste Rechnungsgrundlage hat selbstverstandlich keinen EinfluB auf den Inhalt der Betrachtungen und die Art der Buchung. Ob Dollar oder Goldmark, statt des Schweizerfrankens, als VergleichsmaB genommen werden, bleibt fiir die entwickelten Methoden vollstandig gleichgiiltig. Die weitere Folge der Geldverschlechterung ist eine Erschwerung, wo nicht Verunmoglichung der Buchfiihrung. Jede Messung ist un zuverlassig, wenn ungenaue, veranderliche MaBeinheiten dazu beniitzt werden; qesgleichen wird nicht nur jede in schwankenden Geldeinheiten gefiihrte, sondern auch jede, die fremden Valuten nicht vor sichtig bewertende Buchhaltung falsche Resultate ermitteln."

nie beutfd)e \nationall: lerfammlung at naeT) lBerabfd)iebung Cer lBer faffung i re wid)tigfte 2lufgabe bcringefe en, ba 0teuerwefcn ccllfficid)Cll ocn runb aull 3U rejormieren, um fur ben burd) oen Jtticg unb bcn )5ticbcnel: lertrag ins Ungcmeffene geftiegenen inan3bebarf bell meid)cs: Dcdung 3u fd)affen.: Die S anb abc ba3u bot 2lrtifel 8 ber neuen lBer raHung bcll neutfd)en ffieid)es oom 11. 2luguft 1919 (ffi ml. 0. 1383), wonad) ball ffieid) "bie cfc gebung uber bie 2lbgaben uno fonftigen @inna men, orueit ie gan3 ober teilweife fur feine 3wede in 2 nfprud) qenomrnen werben," f)at, woT)renb ball 30llwefen nad) 2lrtifel 6 3ur aullfd)lie lid)en efe gebung bell ffieid)ell ge ort.: Dall ffieid) fann cernnorf auf bem ebiete bell inan3wefene in bern Umfange, wie ell biell fur erforberlid) erad)tet, alle (SteuerqueIlen fur feine 3wede in 2 nfprud) nebmcn, insbejonbere aud) ball ebiet ber bireften: sntereHe, bae3unbwaren, (Spielfarten unb\tabaffteuergefe ornie bae@jefe 3ur 2lbOnberung bell (Sef)aumweinfteuergefe ell."

Dieser Buchtitel ist Teil des Digitalisierungsprojekts Springer Book Archives mit Publikationen, die seit den Anfangen des Verlags von 1842 erschienen sind. Der Verlag stellt mit diesem Archiv Quellen fur die historische wie auch die disziplingeschichtliche Forschung zur Verfugung, die jeweils im historischen Kontext betrachtet werden mussen. Dieser Titel erschien in der Zeit vor 1945 und wird daher in seiner zeittypischen politisch-ideologischen Ausrichtung vom Verlag nicht beworben.

Dieser Buchtitel ist Teil des Digitalisierungsprojekts Springer Book Archives mit Publikationen, die seit den Anfangen des Verlags von 1842 erschienen sind. Der Verlag stellt mit diesem Archiv Quellen fur die historische wie auch die disziplingeschichtliche Forschung zur Verfugung, die jeweils im historischen Kontext betrachtet werden mussen. Dieser Titel erschien in der Zeit vor 1945 und wird daher in seiner zeittypischen politisch-ideologischen Ausrichtung vom Verlag nicht beworben.

Dieser Buchtitel ist Teil des Digitalisierungsprojekts Springer Book Archives mit Publikationen, die seit den Anfangen des Verlags von 1842 erschienen sind. Der Verlag stellt mit diesem Archiv Quellen fur die historische wie auch die disziplingeschichtliche Forschung zur Verfugung, die jeweils im historischen Kontext betrachtet werden mussen. Dieser Titel erschien in der Zeit vor 1945 und wird daher in seiner zeittypischen politisch-ideologischen Ausrichtung vom Verlag nicht beworben.

This is a reproduction of a book published before 1923. This book may have occasional imperfections such as missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. that were either part of the original artifact, or were introduced by the scanning process. We believe this work is culturally important, and despite the imperfections, have elected to bring it back into print as part of our continuing commitment to the preservation of printed works worldwide. We appreciate your understanding of the imperfections in the preservation process, and hope you enjoy this valuable book. ++++ The below data was compiled from various identification fields in the bibliographic record of this title. This data is provided as an additional tool in helping to ensure edition identification: ++++ Die Tarifreform Von 1879 Wilhelm Oechelhaeuser J. Springer, 1880 Law; Commercial; International Trade; Business & Economics / Commercial Policy; Law / Commercial / International Trade; Political Science / International Relations / Trade & Tariffs; Tariff

gesellschaften mit einem Umfang von 29 340 Meilen (= 47 237 km) und einem Anlagekapital von 1781313 000 Dollars, d. h. tiber 7 Milliarden Mark in Vermogensverfall gerathen und in die Hande von Massenverwaltern gekommen. Darunter befinden sich einige der grossten Bahnen der Vereinigten Staaten, die zum Theil seit Jahr- zehnten in ihrem Wirthschafts- und Verkehrsleben eine hervor- ragende Stellung einnehmen, so die Philadelphia and Reading (3944 Meilen einschl. der gepachteten Linien), die New-York Lake Erie und Western (1948 Meilen), die Northern Pacific Eisenbahn (4438 Meilen) die Union Pacific (7573 Meilen), die Atchison Topeca und Santa Fe-Eisenbahn (4882 Meilen), die San Luis und San Francisco Eisenbahn (1328 Meilen). Das Zwangsverwaltungsver- fahren ist bei keiner dieser Bahnen bis jetzt zu Ende gefiihrt, ja der Zeitpunkt einer Beendigung lasst sich noch nicht annahernd itberblicken, so trostlos, so verworren sind die Verhaltnisse. -- Derartige Zahlungseinstellungen sind zwar eine sozusagen regel- massige Erscheinung in den Vereinigten Staaten, wahrend sie in andern zivilisirten Landern zu den Seltenheiten gehoren, niemals aber sind sie bisher in solcher Massenhaftigkeit vorgekommen, wie im Jahre 1893. Das zeigt die folgende Tabelle tiber die in den Jahren 1884 bis 1894 eingeleiteten Zwangsverwaltungen: ----- --------- --- Anlagekapital Anzahl Lange der (Aktien und Jahr der Bahnen Obligationen) Bahnen (engl.

This book focuses on the building of a crypto economy as an alternative economic space and discusses how the crypto economy should be governed. The crypto economy is examined in its productive and financialised aspects, in order to distil the need for governance in this economic space. The author argues that it is imperative for regulatory policy to develop the economic governance of the blockchain-based business model, in order to facilitate economic mobilisation and wealth creation. The regulatory framework should cater for a new and unique enterprise organisational law and the fund-raising and financing of blockchain-based development projects. Such a regulatory framework is crucially enabling in nature and consistent with the tenets of regulatory capitalism. Further, the book acknowledges the rising importance of private monetary orders in the crypto economy and native payment systems that do not rely on conventional institutions for value transfer. A regulatory blueprint is proposed for governing such monetary orders as 'commons' governance. The rise of Decentralised Finance and other financial innovations in the crypto economy are also discussed, and the book suggests a framework for regulatory consideration in this dynamic landscape in order to meet a balance of public interest objectives and private interests. By setting out a reform agenda in relation to economic and financial governance in the crypto economy, this forward-looking work argues for the extension of 'regulatory capitalism' to this perceived 'wild west' of an alternative economic space. It advances the message that an innovative regulatory agenda is needed to account for the economically disruptive and technologically transformative developments brought about by the crypto economy.

This book provides the first comprehensive analysis of factors that transform a prima facie non-international armed conflict (NIAC) into an international armed conflict (IAC) and the consequences that follow from this process of internationalization. It examines in detail the historical development as well as the current state of the relevant rules of international humanitarian law. The discussion is grounded in general international law, complemented with abundant references to case law, and illustrated by examples from twentieth and twenty-first century armed conflicts. In Part I, the book puts forward a thorough catalogue of modalities of conflict internationalization that includes outside intervention, State dissolution, and recognition of belligerency. It then specifically considers the legal qualification of complex situations that feature more than two conflict parties and contrasts the mechanism of internationalization of armed conflicts with the reverse process of de-internationalization. Part II of the book challenges the conventional wisdom that members of non-State armed groups do not normally benefit from combatant status. It argues that the majority of fighters belonging to non-State armed groups in most types of internationalized armed conflicts are in fact eligible for combatant status. Finally, Part III turns to belligerent occupation, traditionally understood as a leading example of a notion that cannot be transposed to armed conflicts occurring in the territory of a single State. By contrast, the book argues in favour of the applicability of the law of belligerent occupation to internationalized armed conflicts.

This book examines the legislative patchwork surrounding access to the European Commission's cartel case files. Recent legislative changes have increased the value of the files and have also highlighted the inherent tension between a number of competing interests affecting their accessibility. The Commission is undoubtedly caught between a rock and a hard place, charged with the task to ensure due process, transparency and effectiveness while at the same time promoting both public and private enforcement of the EU competition rules. The author considers how best to ensure a proper balance between the legitimate, but often diverging interests of parties, third parties and national competition authorities in these cases. The book provides a unique and comprehensive presentation of the EU legislation and case law surrounding access to the Commission's cartel case files. The author examines the question of accessibility from three different perspectives: that of the parties under investigation, cartel victims, and national competition authorities. The author also considers the EU leniency system and whether any legislative changes could make the attractiveness of the system less dependent on the possibilities of cartel victims to access the evidence contained in the Commission's case files.

The United Nations Handbook on Selected Issues for Taxation of the Extractive Industries by Developing Countries gives guidance to developing countries on key taxation issues during the life-cycle of an investment in the extractive industries, whether it be oil and gas or mining. The Handbook considers the options available to countries in this area, and their likely consequences. It addresses the balance needed to fight tax evasion and avoidance, while still having an attractive investment climate

States increasingly cooperate to buy expensive defence equipment, but the management and legal aspects of these large collaborative procurement programmes are complex and not well understood. The Law of Collaborative Defence Procurement in the European Union analyses how these programmes are managed, and highlights areas which require improvement. The book addresses the law applicable to these programmes, which is built upon a four-layer 'matryoshka doll' of legal relationships at the crossroads of public international law, EU law and domestic law. Using practical examples, the book makes proposals for clarifying the legal basis and improving the efficiency of defence equipment cooperation among EU member states. By covering a broad scope of legal issues, this analysis goes beyond the defence sector and is relevant to centralised or joint purchasing and procurement activities of international organisations, providing invaluable information for practitioners, policy-makers and academics aiming to analyse or improve these projects.

The publication examines changes in the regulatory landscape in the member States of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), including the recent trend towards "better regulation", i.e. regulations with a greater focus on desired outcomes and more flexibility. This approach can help remove barriers to trade created by differences in national standards and technical regulations. The current volume brings together contributions and research papers prepared by some of the speakers and participants of the International Forum on "Common Regulatory Language for Global Trade", held in June 2006, as well as by the UNECE secretariat. These contributions, which were written after the event and since updated, reflect the thinking that the Forum helped generate, which is of continued policy relevance.

This book addresses an important but little-noticed phenomenon in the revolutionary world of military technology. Across a wide range of otherwise-unrelated weapons programs, the Pentagon is now pursuing arms that are deliberately crafted to be less powerful, less deadly, and less destructive than the systems they are designed to supplement or replace. This direction is historically anomalous; military forces generally pursue ever-bigger bangs, but the modern conditions of counter-insurgency warfare and military operations 'other than war' (such as peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance) demand a military capable of modulated force. By providing a capacity to intervene deftly yet effectively, the new generations of 'useable' weaponry should enable the U.S. military to accomplish its demanding missions in a manner consistent with legal obligations, public relations realities, and political constraints. Five case studies are provided, regarding precision-guided 'smart bombs', low-yield nuclear weapons, self-neutralizing anti-personnel land mines, directed-energy anti-satellite weapons, and non-lethal weapons.

This book conducts an in-depth analysis into the lawfulness of State-sponsored targeted killings under international human rights and humanitarian law. It also addresses the relevance of the law of inter-state force to targeted killings, and the interrelation of the various normative frameworks which may simultaneously apply to operations involving the intentional use of lethal force.
Through a comprehensive analysis of treaties, custom, and general principles of law in light of jurisprudence, doctrine, and travaux preparatoires the author demonstrates that contemporary international law provides two distinct normative paradigms which govern the use of lethal force in law enforcement and in the conduct of hostilities. Based on the resulting normative paradigms, the author shows in what circumstances targeted killings may be considered as internationally lawful. The practical relevance of the various conditions and modalities is illustrated by reference to concrete examples of targeted killing from recent State practice.
In essence the book argues that any targeted killing not directed against a legitimate military target remains subject to the law enforcement paradigm, which imposes extensive restraints on the practice. Even under the paradigm of hostilities, no person can be lawfully liquidated without further considerations. As a form of individualized or surgical warfare, the method of targeted killing requires a 'microscopic' interpretation of the law regulating the conduct of hostilities which leads to nuanced results.
The author concludes by highlighting and comparing the main areas of concern arising with regard to State-sponsored targeted killing under each normative paradigm and by placing the results of the analysis in the wider context of the rule of law.

With the end of the Second World War a new world order arose based on the prohibition of military force in international relations, and yet since 1945 British troops have been regularly deployed around the globe: most notably to Korea, Suez, Cyprus, and the Falklands during the Cold War; and Kuwait, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq since the fall of the Berlin Wall. British forces have been involved in many different capacities: as military observers, peacekeepers, peace-enforcers, state-builders and war-fighters. The decisions to deploy forces are political ones made within several constitutional frameworks, national, regional and international. After considering the various legal and institutional regimes, this book examines the decision to deploy troops from the perspective of international law.
In its military interventions Britain has consistently tried to utilize international law to justify its actions, though often it argues against orthodox interpretation of the laws. In gauging whether its actions are in breach of international law we can again make judgments at different levels using various forms of accountability - from judicial fora (for example the International Court of Justice in The Hague or the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg), to political ones (the UN General Assembly in New York or the House of Commons in Westminster). While this book examines international and regional mechanisms, tumultuous debates on the Suez crisis, Afghanistan, Iraq and others in the House of Commons and its Committees are highlighted to show how international law impacts upon domestic politics. In considering whether democratic accountability is effective in upholding the principles of international law, this book throws new light on an old democracy, and thereby makes a contribution to the current reform proposals that are aimed at improving democratic decision-making.

A comprehensive analysis into the lawfulness of state-sponsored targeted killings under international human rights and humanitarian law, this book examines treaties, custom and general principles of law to determine the normative paradigms which govern the intentional use of lethal force against selected individuals in law enforcement and the conduct of hostilities. It addresses the relevance of the law of interstate force to targeted killings, and the interrelation of the various normative frameworks which may simultaneously apply to operations involving the use of lethal force.
Through a comprehensive analysis of treaties, custom and general principles of law in light of jurisprudence, doctrine and travaux preparatoires the author demonstrates that contemporary international law provides two distinct normative paradigms which govern targeted killings in situations of law enforcement and the conduct of hostilities. Based on the resulting normative paradigms, the author shows in what circumstances targeted killings may be considered as internationally lawful. The practical relevance of the various conditions and modalities are illustrated by reference to concrete examples of targeted killing from recent state practice.
The book argues that any targeted killing not directed against a legitimate military target remains subject to the law enforcement paradigm, which imposes extensive restraints on the practice. Even under the paradigm of hostilities, no person can be lawfully liquidated without further considerations. As a form of individualized or surgical warfare, the method of targeted killing requires a "microscopic" interpretation of the law regulating the conduct ofhostilities which leads nuanced results reflecting the fundamental principles underlying international humanitarian law.
The author concludes by highlighting and comparing the main areas of concern arising with regard to state-sponsored targeted killing under each normative paradigm and by placing the results of the analysis in the greater context of the rule of law.
*The author has conceived and written this book in an entirely personal capacity and independently from his function as a Legal Adviser in the Legal Division of the ICRC. The opinions expressed therein are his own and do not necessarily correspond to those held by the ICRC or its Legal Division.

On the night of April 8, 1956, marine drill instructor, Matthew McKeon led Platoon 71 on a forced march through the backwaters of Parris Island in an effort to restore flagging discipline. Unexpectedly strong currents in Ribbon Creek and an ensuing panic led to the drowning of six recruits. The tragedy of Ribbon Creek and the court-martial of Staff Sergeant McKeon became the subject of sensational national media coverage and put the future of the U.S. Marine Corps in jeopardy. In this definitive account of the Ribbon Creek, incident former marine and experienced trial lawyer and judge John C. Stevens III examines the events of that night, the men of Platoon 71, and the fate of Sergeant McKeon. Drawing on personal interviews with key participants and his own extensive courtroom experience, Stevens balances the human side of this story with insights into the court proceedings and the tactics of the prosecution and defense attorney Emile Zola Berman. The resulting narrative is a richly developed account of a horrific episode in American military history and of the complex characters at the heart of this cautionary tale.

This monograph analyses the questions raised by the legal effects of peremptory norms of international law (jus cogens). A comprehensive study of this problem has been lacking so far in international legal doctrine. Peremptory norms, although often criticised and even more often approached with sceptical nihilism, nevertheless attract growing doctrinal and practical attention and have increasing importance in determining the permissible limits on the action of State and non-State actors in different areas. In view of this overriding impact on what might otherwise be instances of the law-making process, peremptory norms concern a constitutional aspect of international law. Peremptory norms are non-derogable norms, and the concept of derogation is among the key concepts analysed here. Derogation from peremptory norms can be attempted in a wide variety of situations, but if peremptory norms are to operate as norms and not merely as aspirations they must generate consequences that are also peremptory. This effects-oriented character of peremptory norms is examined in a variety of fields. Despite the growing relevance of peremptory norms in practice, doctrine has failed to treat the issue comprehensively and has often been limited to examining specific aspects of the problem, such as the impact of peremptory norms in the law of treaties. This fresh effort to examine and explain the phenomenon of peremptory norms in key areas fills an important doctrinal gap through presenting in a systematic way the effects of peremptory norms and reappraising the significance of such effects, bearing in mind their overall nature. It also demonstrates that the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms is not limited to the sphere of primary legal relations but becomes most crucially relevant after a specific peremptory norm is breached. A norm's peremptory character is relevant not only for its substance but also for its consequences; peremptoriness consists primarily in the capacity to impact through its effects upon conflicting acts, situations and agreements.

This book is the first comprehensive manual on the law of armed conflict prepared by a team of expert scholars and practitioners working for and with the UK Ministry of Defence. It covers all aspects of the law of armed conflict as applied today, including means and methods of warfare, the treatment of civilians and other non-combatants - including prisoners of war - and the conduct of operations in all three environments: land, sea and air. It also includes discussion of some of the key elements of relevance in the modern strategic environment, not least the legal aspects of internal armed conflict and the application of the law during peace support operations. This is a significant publication providing sound evidence of the legal views of one of the five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council. As such it will become an essential reference and source for legal scholars working in this field, for officials working in foreign and defence ministries around the globe, and for military officers and lawyers requiring a sound grasp of the legal framework of military operations

Although huge in scope and impact, the 9/11 attacks were not the first threat by foreign terrorists on American soil. During World War II, eight Germans landed on our shores in 1942 bent on sabotage. Caught before they could carry out their missions, under FDR's presidential proclamation they were hauled before a secret military tribunal and found guilty. Meeting in an emergency session, the Supreme Court upheld the tribunal's authority. Justice was swift: six of the men were put to death-a sentence much more harsh than would have been allowed in a civil trial.

Louis Fisher chronicles the capture, trial, and punishment of the Nazi saboteurs in order to examine the extent to which procedural rights are suspended in time of war. One of America's leading constitutional scholars, Fisher analyzes the political, legal, and administrative context of the Supreme Court decision Ex parte Quirin (1942). He reconstructs a rush to judgment that has striking relevance to current events by considering the reach of the law in trials conducted against wartime enemies.

Fisher contends that, although the Germans did not have a constitutional right to a civil trial, the tribunal represented an ill-conceived concentration of power within the presidency, supplanting essential checks from the judiciary, Congress, and the office of the Judge Advocate General. He also reveals that the trials were conducted in secret not to preserve national security but rather to shield the government's chief investigators and sentencing decisions from public scrutiny and criticism. Thus, the FBI's bogus claim to have nabbed the saboteurs entirely on their own was allowed to stand, while the saboteurs' death sentences were initially kept hidden from public view.

Fisher provides an inside look at the judicial deliberations, drawing on the 3,000-page tribunal transcript, Supreme Court records, and the private papers of the justices and executive officials involved. He analyzes the deep disagreements within the Roosevelt administration, leading to a conclusion in 1945 that the process used against the eight Germans had been defective and, thus, that an entirely different procedure was needed to prosecute two later German saboteurs.
Nazi Saboteurs on Trial also reveals just how poorly the justices resisted wartime pressures and how badly they failed to protect procedural rights. Although Ex parte Quirin is cited as an "apt precedent" by the Bush administration for the trying of suspected al Qaeda terrorists, Fisher concludes that the 1942 decision was, in the words of Justice Felix Frankfurter, "not a happy precedent." His book provides a sober cautionary tale for our current effort to balance individual rights and national security.