The purpose of this book is to investigate the suitability and applicability of available methods for analyzing the human and ecological risks involved in the release of genetically-modified microorganisms. Main topics include: - risk analysis and assessment; approach to safety assurance; - inventory of available scientific risk assessment methods for biotechnology; - identification of methodology gaps and research needs in biology, ecology or other disciplines; - development of a general framework to guide future biotechnology risk assessment efforts; - international regulatory activities.

In Physical Processes in Estuaries the present day knowledge of the physics of transport phenomena in estuaries and their mathematical treatment is summarized: It is divided into following parts: - Water movements in estuaries - Estuarine fronts and river plumes - Internal waves and interface stability - Fine sediment transport, aggregation of particles, settling velocity of mud flocs - Sedimentation and erosion of fine sediments. For each topic an up-to-date review and recommendations for future research are given, followed by results of original studies. Since estuarine environments are the first to be threatened by urbanization and industrial exploitation this book is an important tool for students and researchers of environmental problems as well as for consultants and water authorities.

Protection of coastal waters from direct pollution by coastal cities is a vital task in preserving marine ecosystems and promoting human health. This book, edited by two leading experts on wastewater management for coastal cities, delves deeply into the ecological and oceanographic fundamentals that are essential for understanding of what happens to wastes discharged into the nearshore marine environment. It explains the requirements for rational engineering design and operation of the physical and institutional components of coastal city wastewater management, and it provides guidelines for hydraulic design, ocean outfall construction, monitoring, cost recovery, and other economic aspects. Case studies are included, drawn from the editors' worldwide field experience.

This document is the result of a conference on "Biological Monitoring of Metals" held in Rochester, June 2-6, 1986, organized jointly by the Environmental Health Sciences Center of the School of Medicine and Dentistry of the University of Rochester, NY, and the Scientific Committee on the Toxicology of Metals within the International Commission on Occupational Health (ICOH) at the Karolinska Institute and the National (Swedish) Institute of Environmental Medicine and the University of Umea, Sweden. The aim of the Conference was to define and evaluate the scientific basis for the biological monitoring of metals. The conference was co-sponsored by the World Health Organization through its International Program on Chemical Safety and received substantial encouragement and support from the Swedish Work Environmental Fund and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. This was the second conference organized jointly by the Scientific Committee on the Toxicology of Metals and The Toxicology Division of the University of Rochester. The previous joint conference was held in 1982 on the Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Metals. In addition, conferences have been organized by each group (see Appendices A and B). Several of these conferences are specially relevant to the topic of the current conference. These include the joint conference mentioned above and the conferences on dose-effect and dose-response relationship held in Tokyo in 1974 and on accumulation of metals held in Buenos Aires in 1972.

"Heavy Metals: Problems and Solutions" is divided into three sections dealing with basic geochemical processes, remediation and case studies. The basic geochemical processes are discussed with respect to mobility in the environment and impact as well as methods to derive guidelines for heavy metals. Remediation focuses on currently available methods to treat contaminated sediments and soils. In addition, it considers the concept of geochemical engineering for remediation of large areas contaminated by metals. A number of case studies of polluted sediments and soils and their environmental impact highlight the principles discussed in the first two sections.

Nowadays, major environmental issues are the object of large public debates de- spite the fact that scientific knowledge is often insufficient to draw unequivocal conclusions. Such is the case in the ongoing debate regarding the specific contri- butions of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and of natural climate changes to global warming. At least 10 to 20 years of additional observations will be re- quired, before we will be able to conclude, with certainty, on this subject. In the mean time, and as directed by their immediate interests, people will continue to promote contradictory opinions. The media are, in part, responsible for perpetuat- ing such debates in that they convey indiscriminately the opinion of highly credi- ble scientists as that of dogmatic researchers, the latter, unfortunately too often expressing working hypotheses as established facts. Naturally, in a similarly mis- informed manner, pressure groups tend to support the researcher whose opinions most closely represent either their particular ideological battles or their economic interests and, hence, in their own way, add further to the confusion and obscurity of the debate. Only a few years ago, mercury (Hg)contamination in hydroelectric reservoirs was the object of such media and social biases. At the time, analytical data used to support the discourse were themselves uncertain and numerous hypotheses, often times fanciful, were proposed and hastily "delivered" to the public.

The object of sludge characterization must be to get quantitative mea- sures for sludge behaviour in treatment processes and when disposed of. Thus the incentive for characterization could be one of the following: 1. Because sludges exist in large quantities we want to know the amounts and the expenees involved in their treatment and disposal. 2. Because sludges are environmental nuicances/hazards, energy sourc:-es, fertilizers or even food sources; we want to know their potential. 3. Because the processes change the sludge propert~es, we w~nt to know their "treatability". 4. 5ecause sludges have a history, we want to know how the generation process affects the quantities and the properties of raw sludge. Parallel to the characterization of the sludges runs characterization of the sludge treatment-processes and the environment in which we dispose of the sludge. In the following discussion we will group parameters related to sludges into three cathegories: 1. Sludge Quantity. Both total ~nd per capita sludge production data from all connnon sewage and sludge treatment methods are of "interest. 2. Treatability parameters. These are characteristics of how a sludge behaves in a specific process. Typically; dewaterability and digesta- bility. 3. Sludge quality parameters. These are indicators of how the sludge could influence the environment when disposed of. Sludge quality changes through most sludge treatment processes (stabilization, ther- mal etc.) and include concentrations of chemical compounds, pathogenes etc.

During the past few years the worlds has reverberated of names like Seveso, Love Canal, Lekkerkerk, Times Beach, just to name the most publicized ones. All these names are connected with hazardous or toxic waste, waste from business and industry, especially the chemical industry. The list is endless because there are, all over the world, many thousands of "points noirs" not yet discovered or identified old lagoons and landfills, polluted rivers, estuaries, and harbors needing remedial action, which undoubtedly will reveal more unpleasant secrets of the chemical industry's past. It is not an exaggerated statement that chemists of the past have paid too much attention to the composition of new products while neglecting the disposition of byproducts, i.e., chemical waste. Admittedly, during the last decade this attitude has changed dramatically. Although we cannot yet properly speak of a new science of peri ontology (the theory of residues), we seem to be headed towards substantiated rules, analyses, disposal protocols, definitions and remedial practices in handling the problems of chemical waste. Especially during the last two years comprehensive treatises of the whole complex subject as well as monographs dealing with assorted aspects of waste tech nology have appeared."

Experts in soil and environmental sciences as well as in the theory of wave propagation and numerical modeling methods provide a comprehensive account of different aspects of pollutant migration in soils, aquifers, and other geological formations. Emphasis is laid on the analysis of contributing phenomena and their interactions, modeling, and the practical use of such knowledge and models for guidance in disposal operations, preventive measures to minimize ecological damage, prediction of consequences of seepage, and design of remedial actions. Topics covered include the chemical behavior of soils, sorption and retardation, biochemistry of pollutants, ion exchange and kinetics of reactions in soils, measurement of adsorption and desorption, multiphase hydrodynamics, multicomponent wave theory and the coherence concept, nonlinear wave propagation in geological formations, multiphase convective transport, diffusion and fast reaction, modeling pollutant transport, numerical methods, dispersion of contaminants from landfills, risk analysis, water reuse, and radioactive soil contamination at Chernobyl.

The identification of inputs and outputs is the first and probably most important step in testing and analyzing complex systems. Following accepted natural laws such as the conservation of mass and the principle of electroneutrality, the input/output analysis of the system, be it steady or in connection with perturbations will reveal the status dynamic, will identify whether changes are reversible or irreversible and whether changing the input will cause a hysteresis response. Moreover, measurements ofinput and output fluxes can indicate the storage capacity ofa system, its resilience to buffer or amplify variations of the external input, and it can identify structural changes. Therefore, to a certain extent, the input/output analysis can facilitate predictions about the ecosystem stability. The measurement of fluxes and the determination of inputs and outputs of eco systems are, in many aspects, analogous to measurements done by engineers when testing an electronic apparatus. The first step is the measurement ofthe input/output properties of the instrument as a whole, or ofvarious circuit boards, and the compari. son ofthese with the expected variations of the original design. Varying input and out. put can give valuable information about the stability and the regulatory properties of the device. Nevertheless, only the circuit as an entity has specific properties which cannot be anticipated if the individual components are investigated regardless oftheir position. Also, the instrument as a whole will have different input/output properties than its subcircuits."

The agricultural value of sewage sludges is well known and a lot of published data has demonstrated the positive effects of sludge appli cations on plant growth and yield. These effects are probably due mainly to the nitrogen and phosphorus content of sewage sludges. But, as sludges are more organic than mineral, we can expect an effect of the organic matter added to the soil on soil fertility. Certainly, in the future, landspreading of sludges will be regulated, taking into account pollution hazards for waters (excess of nitrogen and phosphorus supply compared to plant needs and soil storage capacities) and for soils (excess of heavy metals supply and build up in soils). There will be regulations fixing what low level of sludges may be spread each year, decreasing their comparative value with respect to mineral fertilizers. In this eventuality, the organic value of sludges will take on a greater importance and several questions arise: - what is the lowest amount of sludge to be spread to have an immediate effect on soil physical properties? - are sludges effective on soil physical properties when spreading repeated low amounts? On the other hand, organic matter and soil biology are closely linked and there are few data on the possible effects - beneficial or detrimenta- on soil organisms."

This publication constitutes the Proceedings of a Workshop held in Bordeaux (France) on 8th - 10th October, 1980, under the auspices of the Commissior: of the European Communities, as part of the CEC research programme on 'Effluents from Livestock' and the Concerted Action COST 68 bis 'Treatment and Use of Sewage Sludge'. Major changes have taken place in livestock production techniques in recent years. One of the most important developments has been in the field of animal nutrition. Animals are fed to gain maximum liveweight in close relationship with market requirements for carcass and meat quality. With regard to pig production, dietary formulation is based on scientific principles and feed includes a large variety of ingredients to supply optimum feed rations for 'standardised' animals. In order to increase growth rate and to improve feed conversion, copper is added to the ratio s of fattening pigs in a number of countries, in accordance with the provisions of Council Directives concerning additives in feedingstuffs, as last amended by the 23rd Commission Directive of 4th July 1980.

In March, 1983 a workshop on Pollutants in Porous Media was hosted by the Institute of Soils and Water of the Agricultural Research Organi zation in Bet Dagan, Israel. At this workshop, the unsaturated zone be tween the soil surface and groundwater was the focal point of discus sions for scientists from various disciplines such as soil chemists, physicists, biologists and environmental engineers. Since then, the prob lem of soil and water pollution has only worsened as more and more cases of pollution caused by human activities including agriculture and industry have been revealed. A great deal of work has been carried out by environmental scientists since 1983 in elucidating the behavior of the many classes of pollutants and the complex physical, chemical, and bio logical transformations which they undergo as they move through the soil to the vadose zone and, in many cases, the groundwater. In light of this, it was felt that another meeting of specialists from the many disciplines which deal with this subject was necessary and so a Second International Workshop on the Behavior of Pollutants in Porous Media, sponsored by IUPAC (the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) and IAHS (the International Association of Hydrological Sciences), was organized and held in the Institute of Soils and Water of the Agricultural Research Organization in Bet Dagan, Israel during 1987. June, The present volume is a selection of the talks presented at this second workshop and deals only with toxic organic chemicals in porous media."

The problem of pollution of the environment arose for the first time with the beginning of Industrialization. At that time there was no need to think about disposal of waste. There was no reason to do so because the space available to man and other living creatures appeared quite adequate. The life expectancy of man has risen as a result of the enormous advances In technology and medicine. In 1650 It was 30 years throughout the world whi Ie In 1970 It had risen to 53 years, and this has consequently been accompanied by a population exp los I on. Whl Ie the world population in 1650 was some 500,000,000, in 1970 It was about 3,600,000,000. Assuming that mortality does not rise sharply, the population potential 1 for the year 2000 is expected to be some 7,000,000,000 * Industrial production has grown to an even greater degree than the world population. The growth of noxious substances has developed with the growth of the population on the one hand and with industrial growth on the other. The growth of slaughterhouse waste is directly related to population growth, because as the population -increases so does the demand for meat and meat products. Consumption habits have also changed with Increasing prosperity so that there has been an increase in the proportion of slaughterhouse by-products which are difficult to market.

The past few years have seen the emergence of a growing, widespread desire in this country, and indeed everywhere, that positive actions be taken to restore the quality of our environment, and to protect it from the degrading effects of all forms of pollution-air, noise, solid waste, and water. Since pollution is a direct or" indirect consequence of waste, if there is no waste, there can be no pollution, and the seemingly idealistic demand for" zero discharge" can be construed as a demand for zero waste. However, as long as there is waste, we can only attempt to abate the consequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. In those instances in which a particular type of pollution has been recognized, three major questions usually arise: 1, How serious is the pollution? 2, Is the technology to abate it available? and 3, Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement achieved? The principal intention of this series of books is to help the reader to formulate answers to the last two of the above three questions. The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollution problems has been a major factor contributing to the success of environmental engineering, and in large measure has accounted for the establishing ofa "methodology of pollution control.

Over the past two decades, this environmental conference series has emerged to be come one of the major international forums on the chemical aspects of environmental pro tection. The forum is called Chemistry for the Protection of the Environment (CPE). The sponsors of this CPE series have included the Chemical Societies of Poland, France, Bel gium, Italy, Egypt, and the U.S.A., the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, the American Society of Testing and Materials, the International Ozone Association, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the Ministries of the Environment of Poland, France, Belgium, and Italy, U.S. Agency for International Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, more than twenty universities and institutes of higher learning, and five national academies of sciences. The first meeting in this series was organized by Prof. Pawlowski and Dr. Lacy in 1976 at the Marie Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, Poland. The conference dealt with various physicochemical methodologies for water and wastewater treatment research projects that were jointly sponsored by U.S. EPA and Poland."

Risk assessment has come to assume acute importance in the former Soviet Union since money is so scarce, yet the needs for cleanup are so huge. Other factors contribute to this situation, too: New leaders are still emerging, and governmental structures are still evolving. This creates a particular difficulty for environmentalists who attempt to become involved in the risk assessment process. New information continues to surface on the fallout from Chernobyl and its consequences for human health. Scientists are still debating the effects of low doses of radiation delivered over a long period of time. This type of contamination is especially prevalent in the Russian North, for example, as a result of the dumping of nuclear submarine reactors into the Kara and Barents Seas. This book examines the complexities of risk assessment in the FSU at this unique time in history.

Reservoirs for Wastewater Storage and Reuse is a compendium of available information on this emergent technology, from the role that wastewater reservoirs can play within general water resources management and wastewater reuse policy, to the design and operation of the units, including removal efficiencies for different pollutants. Furthermore, a detailed description of the ecological structure and function of the ecosystem of reservoirs is given. This book summarizes more than 20 years of research and development in Israel where more than 200 of these reservoirs are in operation. It includes both theoretical developments and practical experience gained by designers, operators and farmers. Potential geographic areas for the use of these reservoirs are the whole Mediterranean region, the Pacific coasts of both South and North America, the Atlantic coasts of Africa, the Middle East, and other regions suffering water shortage.

The Australasia-Pacific Region supports approximately 50% of the world's population. The last half-century has witnessed a rapid increase in the regional population, agricultural productivity, industrial activities and trade within the region. Both the demand for increased food production and the desire to improve the economic conditions have affected regional environmental quality. This volume presents an overview of the fate of contaminants in the soil environment; current soil management factors used to control contaminant impacts, issues related to sludge and effluent disposals in the soil environment; legal, health and social impacts of contaminated land, remediation approaches and strategies to manage contaminated land, some of the problems associated with environmental degradation in the Australasia-Pacific Region and steps that we need to take to safeguard our environment.

Regional Approaches to Water Pollution in the Environment integrates knowledge and experience on pollution problems related to industrial, agricultural and municipal activities and former military sites, with special emphasis on the Black Triangle: the region situated at the borders between North Bohemia, Polish Lower Silesia and South Saxony. Here, some five million inhabitants live in an area of brown coal basins having the highest emissions of sulphuric and nitrogen emission in the whole of Europe. The large-scale damage in this region is due to obsolete technology and insufficient equipment for monitoring emissions. Health effects are severe, and controlling the pollution can only be done at high cost. There is thus a need to exchange knowledge and experience on methods for evaluating the expected effects of measures and purification techniques to remedy ground and surface water pollution.

"Dredged Material and Mine Tailings" are two of the same thing once they are deposited on land: they must be safe-guarded, wash-out must be prevented, and they must be protected by a plantcover. This comprehensive two-volume treatise covers both important aspects of their management: "Environmental " "Management of Solid Waste" turns to the practical applications, such as prediction, restoration and management, while in "Chemistry and Biology of Solid Waste" the principles and assessment are scientifically studied and discussed. Previously, dredged material was a commodity, it could be sold as soil, e. g. to gardeners. In the meantime, dredged material from the North Sea (e.g. the Rotterdam or Amsterdam harbor) must be treated as hazardous waste. Many environmentalists, managers and companies do not know how to solve the inherent problems. This new work deals with the chemical, physical and biological principles; the biological and geochemical assessment; the prediction of effects and treatment; and finally, with restoration and revegetation. It is written by many leading scientists in the various fields, and will prove invaluable for managers and politicians who are concerned with the present environmental situation.

Most of the nuclear facilities built since the Second World War have ceased active operation and have been decommissioned. Some of the sites are heavily contaminated with radioactive substances. Correct and efficient action to mitigate the radiological consequences of such contamination will only be possible when the behaviour of radionuclides in the terrestrial environment is sufficiently well known. Yet radioecologists often find it difficult to study the transfer of radioactivity in agricultural land and semi-natural ecosystems, because of the complexity and diversity of such environments. The present book presents an analysis of all the factors that affect the behaviour of radionuclides as they move from their point of release through the environment and then enter the tissues of biota living in the ecosystems, in particular plants and animals consumed by humans. The course on which the book is based was held in a region that is heavily contaminated by radioactive discharges into the environment during nuclear weapons fabrication in the 1950s and '60s, and due to a severe accidental release following the explosion of a rad-waste tank in 1957. This allowed in situ training of the students. The book's main emphasis is on specific radioecological problems in severely contaminated areas in the former Soviet Union: the Southern Urals Trail, the rivers Techa-Isert-Tobol-Irtis-Ob, and the 30 km zone around Chernobyl. Systems examined include soils, arable and pasture land, forests, lakes and rivers. Special attention is paid to the effects of radiation on natural ecosystems: trees, soil-dwelling organisms, and aquatic organisms. Synergistic effects are also considered. Short, medium and long term countermeasures are discussed.

The atmospheric scientists of the world are in general agreement that the threat of climate change is real, inevitable, and serious. The accumulation of greenhouse gases, principally CO from burning fossil fuels, is the main cause. 2 At the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, 166 nations signed the Framework Convention on Climate Change and agreed to draw up plans to contain greenhouse gases at 1990 levels. Never in world history had so many nations agreed on anything. . Developing these plans has not been easy and no two countries have had the same circumstances and conditions to meet. Countries have not approached their problems in the same manner and many nations find the task almost impossible to solve under the ground rules set up in Rio. This volume contains the papers presented at a meeting organized by the Center for Environmental Information and held in Washington, D.C., November 30 to December 2, 1994. The principal aim of the meeting was to evaluate the U.S. and other national climate action plans which had been released a few weeks before. Specifically, these papers concentrate on an overview of the U.S. plan; the perspec tives of business, industry, electric utilities, and environmental organizations; mitigation actions in various plans; integrated assessment; an overview of plans from various nations; and the need to amend the convention. The meeting was sponsored and cosponsored by 35 governmental agencies, environ mental groups, industrial organizations, and educational institutions."

From beach encounters, aquaculture perils, and processed-food poisoning to snake bites and biological warfare, natural toxins seem never to be far from the public's sight. A better understanding of toxins in terms of their origin, structure, structure-function relation ships, mechanism of action, and detection and diagnosis is of utmost importance to human and animal food safety, nutrition, and health. In addition, it is now clear that many of the toxins can be used as scientific tools to explore the molecular mechanism of several biological processes, be it a mechanism involved in the function of membrane channels, exocytosis, or cytotoxicity. Several of the natural toxins have also been approved as therapeutic drugs, which has made them of interest to several pharmaceutical companies. For example, botulinum neurotoxins, which have been used in studies in the field of neurobiology, have also been used directly as therapeutic drugs against several neuromus cular diseases, such as strabismus and blepherospasm. Toxins in combination with modem biotechnological approaches are also being investigated for their potential use against certain deadly medical problems. For example, a combination of plant toxin ricin and antibodies is being developed for the treatment of tumors. The great potential of natural toxins has attracted scientists of varying backgrounds-pure chemists to cancer biologists-to the study of fundamental aspects of the actions of these toxins."

In the past decades, environmental scientists, economists and physicists have been juggling critical issues within environmental strategies and environmental management styles in order to find a feasible medium between limited resources, long term demands and objectives, and interest groups. In the search for best management alternatives, practice has undergone a pendulum swing between stages that can be characterised as frontier economics, radical environmentalism, resource management/allocation, selective environmentalism and sustainable environmental management. The next stage of management must answer such questions as: Can there be a global - uniform environmental strategy?', or Based on their characteristics, can different issues, different regions and different applications have unique environmental strategies?' Based on this premise, the next stage of management may be identified as risk based sustainable environmental management. The goal of this style will be the risk based, long term, harmonious management of economic resources and environmental preservation for health, safety and prosperity of sustainable populations. When evaluation of risk or risk based ranking of management alternatives enter the picture as part of the overall puzzle, then social policy, ethics and health issues assume a very important role in the management strategy. Economic incentives and environmental constraints have to be considered harmoniously, the main emphasis being placed on protection and preservation of human health and the long term sustaining of populations.