This practical, user-friendly resource provides essential information on the care and treatment of exotic pets. Coverage includes common health and nutritional issues, as well as restraint techniques, lab values, drug dosages, and special equipment needed to treat exotics. It addresses a wide range of species, including invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles, birds, marsupials, and small mammals (including ferrets, rabbits, and rodents). It also discusses wildlife rehabilitation and offers information on laws and regulations, establishing licensure, orphan care, and emergency care. Brings cutting-edge information on all exotic species together in one convenient resource. Offers essential strategies for preparing your staff to properly handle and treat exotic patients. Features an entire chapter on equipping your practice to accommodate exotic species, including the necessary equipment for housing, diagnostics, pathology, surgery, and therapeutics. Provides life-saving information on CPR, drugs, and supportive care for exotic animals in distress. Discusses wildlife rehabilitation, with valuable information on laws and regulations, establishing licensure, orphan care, and emergency care. Includes an entire chapter devoted to the emergency management of North American wildlife. Offers expert guidance on treating exotics for practitioners who may not be experienced in exotic pet care.

Dental cases form a significant part of any general practitioner's case load. Small Animal Dentistry will help practitioners to handle these cases in an effective way, minimising the frustrations and stress that can be associated with unsatisfactory technique. It will also help to identify what is possible and practical for the general practitioner and what is best left to a referral specialist. Unique new cased-based approach relating essential theory to clinical practice Modern, highly designed and illustrated so key information can be seen at a glance Self testing, MCQs and remediation means these books are ideally suited for CPD or as an exam revision aid Essential for all general small animal veterinary practitioners and students This is a series of must-have practical handbooks covering specific veterinary problems using a unique, consistent, cased-based approach. From simple routine first opinion cases to referrals and more complex clinical scenarios, the series provides the essential knowledge that will lead to improved skills and practice for veterinary practitioners undertaking clinical professional development or students nearing the end of their courses and needing a vital examination revision aid. New case-based approach helps relate essential theory to the real world of the busy clinic Each case outlines: initial presentation, clinical signs, examination techniques, differential diagnoses, treatment options, clinical tips and relevant nursing information Highly illustrated using full colour throughout so key information can be found at a glance Numerous self-assessment tests and multiple choice questions with remediation Ideally suited for CPD and as an exam revision aid

This handbook is the first dealing with the discovery of drugs directed against apicomplexan parasites. Amongst others, this group of endoparasites includes the causative agents of Malaria, Toxoplasmosis, and Babesiosis, the latter occurring mainly in animals. Written by renowned scientific experts from academia and industry, the book focuses on currentdrug development approaches for all apicomplexan diseases making it appealing to a large audience, ranging from research labs in academia to the human and veterinarian pharmaceutical industry. This work is the second volume of the new book series 'Drug Discovery in Infectious Diseases', edited by Prof. Dr Paul M. Selzer.

Greene's Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat, 5th Edition provides a comprehensive, clinically useful reference on the management of infectious diseases caused by viruses, bacteria (including rickettsiae, chlamydiae, mycoplasmas, and spirochetes), fungi, algae, protozoa, parasites, and other atypical agents. Each section guides the reader through diagnostic testing for specific infectious diseases, from specimen collection to laboratory submission to interpretation of results to appropriate treatment measures. Full-color illustrations and hundreds of tables provide convenient access to diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations, along with the appropriate drug dosages for effective treatment and prevention. A fully searchable enhanced eBook version is included with print purchase, allowing access to all of the text and figures on a variety of digital devices. More than 150 internationally recognized experts contribute chapters on topics in their field of specialty. Clear and logical organization of chapters provides a solid basis for an approach to diseases caused by specific pathogens, with the first part of the book including sections on diagnostic approaches, treatments (including recommended antimicrobial drug doses), and prevention. Specific pathogens are addressed in the second part of the book, using a structured approach that includes etiology/epidemiology (relevance to wildlife animal hosts, role of the environment), clinical and laboratory findings, treatment, prevention, and public health implications. Case examples illustrate principles and highlight how the material can be applied. More than 800 clinical images, maps, life cycles, and photomicrographs assist with accurate understanding of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis of disease, and disease prevention. Visually appealing maps and life-cycle drawings enhance your comprehension and retention of the material. Convenient drug dosage tables in each chapter provide complete prescribing information; chapters on antimicrobial drugs in the first part of the book summarize pharmacokinetics, indications, contraindications, handling and administration guidelines; and dosage recommendations are made for antivirals, antibacterials, antifungals, antiprotozoals, and antiparasitic drugs. The book emphasizes approaches to optimize antimicrobial stewardship. Clinical Problems section helps you understand what infectious diseases should be considered in animals seen with clinical signs relating to different organ systems. Suggested readings and references are listed in each chapter, facilitating further research and study. Fully searchable enhanced eBook version is included with print purchase, allowing access to all of the text and figures on a variety of digital devices. NEW! Improved format includes overarching information on diagnosis, treatment, and prevention in the first part of the book, followed by specific pathogens and clinical problems in the second and third parts of the book, respectively. NEW! Parasite section includes coverage of disease caused by nematodes, (including heartworm disease), cestodes, trematodes, mites, ticks, fleas, and biting flies. NEW! Renewed focus on clinical relevance is applied throughout the text. NEW! Updated clinical images, maps, and life-cycle drawings are included in every chapter. NEW! Expanded sections on public health for each pathogen emphasize the One Health approach, promoting the interrelationship of human, animal, and environmental health. NEW! Information on SARS-CoV-2 relates its importance and relevance to animal health. NEW! Updated information on vaccination recommendations for client-owned and shelter animals is included as an Appendix.

Now in its sixth edition, Poultry Diseases is once again fully revised with the addition of vital new material. It remains the standard reference work on health and disease for those involved in the poultry industry, government and veterinary education. Following a familiar structure, readers of the sixth edition gain concise but major reviews on current knowledge of general and disease-specific topics discussed over 45 (5 new) chapters in seven sections. With a large international team of contributors led by an authoritative editor team and a Foreword by Professor Frank Jordan, Poultry Diseases is an invaluable resource for the practicing veterinarian, poultry inspector, agricultural manager or veterinary student. Covers common and rarer diseases found in all species of poultry (including chickens, ducks, turkeys, game birds and guinea-fowl). Each chapter outside the General Overview section identifies clearly Epidemiology, Clinical Signs and Differential Diagnosis, Pathogenesis, Treatment and Control. Systems chapters discuss disorders of selected body systems in detail, leading to differential diagnosis of the specific disorder Comprehensive Appendices of Useful Data, Glossary of Terms, and Lists of diseases specific to Turkeys and Ducks (cross-referenced to the disease organisms in the main text) Worldwide coverage from a recognized international team of editors and contributors 5 new chapters and major chapter revisions on biosecurity in poultry management; avian influenza; legislation and poultry welfare New contributors and 2 new prominent editors make up a 4 strong editorial team Two color format with over 60 2-colour illustrations highlights key information Viral chapters now include information on zoonoses

Rabbit medicine is a rapidly expanding area of veterinary practice and rabbits are now the third most popular mammalian pet in the UK. Vets are treating more sick rabbits than ever before, but many vets do not have the clinical experience required to give effective treatment. There is a wealth of information on rabbits available to vets, but much of this is from the laboratory animal field and often isn't applicable to the pet rabbit.

Filling a gap in current literature available on rabbits, "this book" provides the reader with essential information and guidance on rabbit internal medicine ensuring rabbits are treated to the same standard as canine and feline patients. Along with the other books in the Notes on series, it is specifically designed, through an accessible note-based style, to ensure veterinarians and students have quick and easy access to the most up-to-date clinical and diagnostic information.

This book provides:
Differential diagnosis, by presenting complaint and organ systems
Common laboratory abnormalities and their significance in diagnosis
Infectious diseases, their diagnosis and treatment
Therapeutics, and how treatment varies from that of the more commonly encountered companion animals

Warm and heartfelt stories and amusing anecdotes from the life of a vet in God's Own County. Julian Norton has been a vet for over twenty years, and in that time he has treated animals of every kind - snakes and lizards, fish and fowl, sheep, goats, alpacas, cows, horses, swans ... you name it, Julian has seen it and, most likely, made it better! In A Yorkshire Vet Through the Seasons, Julian recounts more inspirational tales from his life, the animals he has treated and the people he has met, as well as taking us through the seasons, showing the challenges and surprises that occur at the most unlikely times. His voice, well known from the television series A Yorkshire Vet on Channel 5, comes over loud and clear in his writing, and the compassion and professionalism he is known for on the TV shines brightly through these pages. Whether he's tending to a domestic pet at his practice in Thirsk or called out to an injured swan in the middle of a cold Yorkshire night, the animals always come first and Julian's passion and commitment are always to the fore. Full of drama, small triumphs, sadness and happiness, this book is an inspiration for anyone who loves animals as well as those who dream of becoming a vet.

Laboratory Animal Medicine, Third Edition, is a fully revised publication from the American College of Laboratory Medicine's acclaimed blue book series. It presents an up-to-date volume that offers the most thorough coverage of the biology, health, and care of laboratory animals. The book is organized by species, with new inclusions of chinchillas, birds, and program and employee management, and is written and edited by known experts in the fields. Users will find gold-standard guidance on the study of laboratory animal science, as well as valuable information that applies across all of the biological and biomedical sciences that work with animals.

Building upon the success of previous editions of the bestselling Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, first published in 1994, this latest revision combines all three volumes in one definitive guide. It covers the essential principles and practices of Laboratory Animal Science as well as selected animal models in scientific disciplines where much progress has been made in recent years. Each individual chapter focuses on an important subdiscipline of laboratory animal science, and the chapters can be read and used as stand-alone texts, with only limited necessity to consult other chapters for information. With new contributors at the forefront of their fields, the book reflects the scientific and technological advances of the past decade. It also responds to advances in our understanding of animal behavior, emphasizing the importance of implementing the three Rs: replacing live animals with alternative methods, reducing the number of animals used, and refining techniques to minimize animal discomfort. This fourth edition will be useful all over the world as a textbook for laboratory animal science courses for postgraduate and undergraduate students and as a handbook for scientists who work with animals in their research, for university veterinarians, and for other specialists in laboratory animal science.

In warm, conversational anecdotes taken from his own practice, Kelley - an award-winning columnist for The Thoroughbred Times as well as a practicing vet - writes about horse health care, from fertility to fractures to foot care. Appealing to the ongoing reader fascination with vets' lives and experiences, as well as to horse owners' needs for sound veterinary advice, THE HORSE DOCTOR IS IN is a medical reference without the endless pages of unreadable medical-speak. Sound, browsable, practical, and usable, this book will both be read in armchairs and used in 3 a.m. barn emergencies.

A broad range of equine health issues is covered in four major sections: Disease; Lameness; Breeding and Foaling; and Care and Management (which covers barn safety, stable vices, goats as companion animals, and more). Each chapter uses a true story to set up a health scenario, then flows into a practical discussion of problems, conditions, or diseases. There are chapters on everything from foaling through equine old age, allowing readers to enjoy the pleasure of fine narrative storytelling while learning how to better handle and understand horses. A particularly satisfying benefit of the book is becoming acquainted with a variety of interesting horses and their owners.

"Notes on Cardiorespiratory Diseases of the Dog and Cat "is part of a series specifically designed, through an accessible note-based style, to ensure veterinarians and students have quick and easy access to the most up-to-date clinical and diagnostic information.

Since the first edition, there have been many developments in this field, particularly in the area of cardiology. This new edition has been completely revised and updated, and now includes the latest information on the diagnosis and treatment of cardiorespiratory diseases. Full of helpful tips and ideas, the authors offer their expert advice on the more common diseases, with some references to rarer conditions.

This edition includes:

Completely revised new edition, now in the Notes On series, detailing the latest developments in the treatment of heart disease;
Practitioner orientated, with full guidance on how to achieve the best diagnostic results for radiography, echocardiography and airway samples;
Includes a drug glossary, table for CPR and useful appendices on breed predispositions and normal echo-values for dogs and cats;
Written by experienced clinical experts in cardiorespiratory medicine.

Scentwork for Horses is the first practical guide on how to implement scentwork into the lives of domesticated horses, enhancing behaviour, welfare, and the human-animal bond. Scentwork is a new discipline in the field for horse and handler, and expert author Rachael Draaisma arms the reader with a palette of information to enable them to put this technique into action. As well as theoretical background information on the nose of the horse and biomechanics, Draaisma discusses how scentwork improves horses' learning abilities, development, socialisation, and their bond with the handler. Readers will learn how to have their horses explore their environment, participate in scentwork games and follow a footstep track to find a missing person or food bag. Easily accessible for anybody working with horses at any level, scentwork can be done in small areas as well as in larger spaces on various surfaces. Whether veterinarian, behaviourist, trainer, animal-assisted therapist, equine physiotherapist, osteopath, or interested horse owner, this book promises to bring both you and the horse enormous benefits, strengthening the human-animal bond. Rachael Draaisma has always lived with and had a passion for dogs and horses. In 2002, she decided to make it her profession. Achieving several diplomas, she started to work full time as a trainer and behavioural consultant, first with dogs, later with horses. Her best-selling book Language Signs and Calming Signals of Horses, published by CRC Press in 2017, has been translated into several languages. Another pillar of Draaisma's working life with horses revolves around equine mental stimulation and scentwork, and she has developed an extensive method to undertake scent tracking with horses, a new tool in enriching the human-equine relationship. Draaisma travels throughout Europe and the globe to provide workshops and lectures on calming signals of horses, equine mental stimulation, and scentwork. You can purchase scent bags to aid your scentwork practice at the author's personal website: www.scentworkforhorses.com or www.calmingsignalsofhorses.com

This is a concise visual guide to the major techniques of regional anesthesia and analgesia for small animal practitioners, with complete coverage of the relevant physics, physiology, and pharmacology. * Provides straightforward advice and easy-to-implement strategies for general veterinary practitioners without specialist training who want to incorporate regional anesthesia into their practice * Features an accessible design with plenty of diagrams and photos and a convenient and robust spiral-bound format that lays flat for use during procedures * Broken into sections which explain techniques by limb or body part and by species * Details important anatomy (nerves, bones, and vessels), as well as possible side effects and complications

For critical care of laboratory rodents, there is a scarcity of sources for comprehensive, feasible, and response-oriented information on clinical interventions specific to spontaneous and induced models of disease. With the more complex cases that need critical care management, many treatment approaches to veterinary emergencies cannot be applied directly to the laboratory rodent. The first text of its kind devoted to the challenges of critical care management for laboratory rodents, Critical Care Management for Laboratory Mice and Rats provides a specialized resource for all veterinary, husbandry, technical, and research professionals who utilize rodent models for biomedical research.The book covers the varied approaches to laboratory rodent patient care, health assessments, characteristics of specific disease models, monitoring and scoring of disease parameters, and humane interventions. Giving primary consideration to preservation of animal health and welfare, the text also considers how best to balance welfare with the achievement of proposed scientific objectives. Organized into five chapters, this full-color book covers the following topics: General Approaches for Critical Care Critical Care Management for Laboratory Mice Critical Care Management for Laboratory Rats Special Considerations for Critical Care Management in Laboratory Rodents Resources and Additional Information The author provides treatment guidelines with the expectation that they will be applied with apt professional judgment, allowing for further modification of clinical recommendations for improved patient-based care and welfare for research animals.

"The Veterinary Drug Handbook: Client Information Edition" helps veterinarians and pharmacists bridge the drug information gap between themselves and the people (clients; owners) who are treating their animals.

Several studies have demonstrated that people receiving verbal information from health professionals retain very little of that information once they leave the premises of their health provider. The information provided in this book will supplement the actual care provided and help in the task at hand, namely to improve the health of animals. The authors have included drugs that are commonly prescribed by small animal and equine practitioners, both those that are veterinary and "human" labeled medications. The authors also provide this information in a format that can be understood by any reader.

The information presented in these monographs will enable the animal caregiver to be better informed about the medication in question and to work with their veterinarian and pharmacist on the journey to positive therapeutic outcomes.

This book describes the cellular and molecular mechanisms that control farm animal growth, including development and body composition. The emphasis is on circulating hormones, local growth factors and gene transcription factors which regulate growth and differentiation of skeletal muscle, bone and adipose tissue. Overall, this book will be an important resource for students that have a limited background in cell, molecular and developmental biology and the effect of endocrine and growth factors on the growth process.

Learn the veterinary technician's role in the care of exotic pets and animals used in biomedical research! Laboratory Animal and Exotic Pet Medicine: Principles and Procedures, 3rd Edition helps you gain the knowledge and skills needed to ensure animal health and well-being. It covers animal husbandry, restraint and handling, and diseases, and provides guidelines to key clinical procedures such as blood collection, medication administration, anesthesia, and diagnostic imaging. Research-related information addresses the ethical concerns of exotic pet ownership, as well as the benefits and humane use of animals in research. Written by noted veterinary technology educator Margi Sirois, this text is a must-have resource for all caretakers of lab animals. Comprehensive coverage prepares you to work with all types of animals by addressing a wide variety of species including rats, mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, ferrets, hamsters, gerbils, nonhuman primates, amphibians, fish, reptiles, birds, farm animals, and cats and dogs; it also covers topics such as animal species, the laboratory setting, regulatory guidelines, and ethical considerations. Consistent organization of each species chapter makes it easy to quickly identify similarities and differences among various laboratory animals. Current information on legal, moral, and ethical issues includes legal requirements, the protocols guiding lab animal use, animal exploitation, and animal rights. Discussion of specific uses for each species in biomedical research provides a perspective that helps you explain the benefits of animal use in providing high-quality research data. Technician Notes highlight important points and provide helpful tips to improve your knowledge and skills. Learning objectives, key points, and chapter review questions make studying easier. NEW! Comprehensive coverage of poultry includes the increasingly popular backyard chickens, as well as commonly performed procedures and in-depth information on housing, restraint, nutrition, common diseases, diagnostics, and therapeutics. NEW photographs show the latest technology available in laboratory and exotic animal medicine.

Provide preventive care and evidence-based treatment for potbellied pigs! Covering a subject that gets little or no attention in other veterinary references, Potbellied Pig Veterinary Medicine is today's definitive guide to all aspects of care for these unique animals. Topics include everything from the physical examination to handling and restraint, common illnesses, diagnosis and treatment, vaccination protocols, behavior, husbandry, sedation, surgery, and much more. Written by Dr. Kristie Mozzachio, a potbellied pig specialist and toxicologic pathologist, this clinical reference is a must-have for every veterinary practice. Comprehensive coverage addresses the essential topics of potbellied pig veterinary care, helping you properly care for these animals within a veterinary practice. Coverage of key aspects of potbellied pig care includes physical examinations, diseases, behavior, husbandry, handling/restraint, surgery, and much more. More than 150 clinical photos show a wide variety of potbellied pigs and treatment scenarios. Enhanced eBook is included with the purchase of a new print copy of the book, providing online access to a fully searchable version of the text and making its content available on various devices. Single-source review provides an all-in-one reference on the care of potbellied pigs. Expert author Kristie Mozzachio has worked with potbellied pigs for more than 25 years, including a mobile veterinary service that specializes in potbellied pigs, and consults both nationally and internationally.

This revised, updated and expanded edition of Christine Hawkey's A Colour Atlas of Comparative Veterinary Haematology is bursting with high-quality images to aid identification of blood cells and haemoparasites in the different species commonly seen in private practice and zoological collections. It will assist veterinarians in the identification of normal and abnormal blood cells and in understanding the structural differences of blood cells between the various taxa within the Animal Kingdom. With the help of this guide, readers will be able to understand haemoresponses in the presence of specific and non-specific disease processes and identify haemoparasites commonly seen in blood films from wild and exotic animals. This impressively illustrated comparative haematology atlas is unrivalled in its scope, quality and accuracy. It is a must-have for veterinary students, veterinary surgeons working in general and referral veterinary clinical practices, clinicians working in zoological collections and specialists in exotic animal medicine.

This book provides a comprehensive text covering all aspects of guinea pig medicine. This updated edition will be of value to veterinary surgeons and students, veterinary nurses, breeders and all those working in the animal care industry. Written in note form the book assists in the formulation of a diagnostic plan when the practitioner is faced with a sick animal. Sections on clinical signs, diagnoses and treatments, allow rapid reference in successive chapters on the reproductive, digestive, respiratory, musculoskeletal and urinary systems, the skin, head and neck, nervous system and husbandry.

All the latest drug information has been included and full details of dose rates, contraindications and components of the proprietary preparations are listed in chapter 11. A new chapter has been written providing information on herbal and homeopathic remedies.

This book is a down to earth, practical guide which provides ten simple steps for success for anyone responsible for recruiting a winning veterinary practice team: whether they are recruiting employees and building their team, or changing culture and creating a supportive environment where employees are engaged and motivated. It is ideal for small business owners who can't afford to employ any human resource support. Intensely practical, it delivers key facts for veterinary staff starting out in business. The book: * Details how you can attract, recruit and retain the right people for a winning team * Guides you on creating a well organised, supportive practice in which employees can flourish * Provides you with a basic introduction to building a strategy and improving your marketing campaigns * Covers the basics of sound financial planning and how to win clients and increase your revenues * Looks at how to manage common pitfalls With a wealth of practical templates and forms to use, this book adopts a straight-talking approach which will be welcomed by anyone starting their own veterinary practice.

In this issue of Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, Guest Editor Alexander M. Reiter brings his considerable expertise to the topic of sedation and anesthesia of zoological companion animals. Top experts in the field cover key topics such as sedation and anesthesia in fish, amphibians, chelonians, lizards, snakes, and more. Provides in-depth, clinical reviews on sedation and anesthesia of zoological companion animals, providing actionable insights for clinical practice. Presents the latest information on this timely, focused topic under the leadership of experienced editors in the field; Authors synthesize and distill the latest research and practice guidelines to create these timely topic-based reviews. Contains 15 relevant, practice-oriented topics including drug delivery and safety considerations; nerve blocks in zoological companion animals; and more.

This handbook covers the diagnosis, etiology, and treatment of conditions affecting the locomotor system in small animals. The 4th edition presents up-to-date information on various types of fractures and methods of fixation, lameness and joint surgery, and musculoskeletal diseases. Other key topics include: acute and chronic bone infections; transplantation, plating, wiring, and pinning techniques; bone grafting; reconstructive joint surgery; and osteochondrosis. Clear, concise coverage covers the pathology, diagnostic work-up, surgical indications and planning, surgical approach, surgical techniques, complications, and follow-up recommendations for the most common orthopedic conditions. Step-by-step line drawings clearly illustrate different types of fractures and demonstrate the surgical procedures used to affect repairs - detail that can't be conveyed in clinical photographs. Anatomical organization provides quick access to information on both fractures and other conditions for each region of the body. NEW! Advances in joint surgeries, specifically the knee, shoulder, and elbow, keep practitioners abreast of the latest technology and best practices. NEW! Coverage of minimally invasive surgery has been added to the many chapters. NEW! Advances in imaging (MRI, CT, and radiographs) are included to keep practitioners up to date on the latest technology. Updates on new fixation technologies include angle stable interlocking nails and locking plate fracture fixation systems. Updates on common surgeries include triple pelvic osteotomy and total hip replacement NEW! High-definition clinical photographs have been added to give readers a closer view of various fractures and repair techniques.

Communicating ideas in veterinary medicine is a fundamental part of continuing veterinary research and building a career as a clinician. The purpose of this book is to help increasing efficiency and effectiveness in writing professional documents, e.g. writing a concise yet thorough discharge statement to avoid repeated client call-backs to clarify medical recommendations. The book also aims at improving the reader's confidence in writing skills through guided and well-thought out "homework" or practice exercises. Useful for both veterinary students and practising vets, Writing Skills for Veterinarians addresses how to develop and hone veterinary medical and scientific writing techniques. The basics of veterinary writing and why it matters are covered before concentrating on specific written models expected of vets - creating medical documents, client and colleague communications, report writing, journal articles and research papers and presentations. At the end of the book is a resource-bank of additional exercises relating to each type of document.

Pain Management in Veterinary Nursing covers the nursing aspects of small animal pain management demonstrating how nursing procedures, techniques and care can be as beneficial to patients as the drugs administered. The book emphasises the vital role that veterinary nurses play in patient welfare - highlighting how advanced knowledge, skill and understanding of pain management is vital in providing exceptional nursing care. Emphasizes the nursing aspects of pain management in small animal practice. Covers the entire range of analgesic drugs available, with details on mechanisms of action, contraindications, and complications. Provides guidelines on how to accurately assess pain in animals and gauge the effectiveness of treatment. Complex topics such as physiology, anatomy, and pharmacology are discussed in clear, accessible language with accompanying figures, tables, and charts that clarify key concepts.