The Fifteenth Rare Earth Research Conference was held June 15-18, 1981 on the Rolla campus of th.e University of Missouri. The conference was hosted by the Graduate Center for Materials Research, the College of Arts and Science, and the School of Mines and Metallurgy. It was expected that the conference would provide a forum for critical examination and review of the current and important trends in rare earth science and technology. To this end, over 170 papers were presented in both oral and poster sessions by researchers representing some nineteen countries. The program committee was particularly gratified to see the diversity of effort being devoted to rare earth research by different disciplines allover the world. The collection of refereed papers in this volume attests to the fact that the objectives of the program committee were indeed realized. A high point of the meeting was the presentation of the Frank n. Spedding Award to a most distinguished colleague, Professor Georg Busch, Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule, Zurich. Prof essor W. Edward hi"allace, University of Pittsburgh, recipient of the first Frank H. Spedding Award made the presentation to Professor Busch who then gave the Plenary Address."

The Twelfth International Diatom Symposium stressed how diatoms can be used to assess the human impact on natural waters, without neglecting other important fields of research. As the frustules of many diatom species are relatively resistant to dissolution they are preserved in freshwater and marine sediments and provide a record of past environments on earth. In past decades they have been successfully used to reconstruct changes in water bodies evoked by changes in salinity, acidification and eutrophication. In the last few years diatom-inferred predictions of environmental variables have become much more quantitative. In the most recent research reports the strong separation between palaeolimnological and neolimnological diatom research is fading, as palaeolimnologists are increasingly using modern calibration sets to infer past states of the environment. This quantitative approach is also very suitable for prediction of future changes in the biota of surface waters. Also ecological changes due to climatic modification have been investigated more thoroughly recently. A very important new research topic is the occurrence of toxic diatoms, particularly along the coasts of North America. These proceedings are intended to be a balanced view of such modern developments in diatom research. They should also be of interest to non-specialists in diatoms, who can use the results of diatom research as a tool in a more general taxonomic, ecological and geological context.

This was the fourth postgraduate summer school on remote sensing to be held in Dundee. These summer schools were originated by, and continue to remain in, the programme of EARSel (European Association of Remote Sensing Laboratories) Working Group 3 on Education and Training in Remote Sensing. The first of these summer schools was held in 1980 on "Remote Sensing in Meteorology, Oceanography and Hydrology." This was followed in 1982 by a more specialised summer school on "Remote Sensing Applications in Marine Science and Technology" which built on the foundation laid in 1980 and then concentrated on the marine applications of remote sensing techniques. The present summer school was another follow-up of the original 1980 summer school but this time concentrating on the atmospheric rather than the marine applications of remote sensing techniques. The 1984 summer school had not specifically involved atmospheric and marine applications but had been involved with the use of remote sensing in the field of civil engineering. This year's summer school was extremely successful. First of all, this was due to our sponsors, for without their very significant material contributions there would have been no summer school. These sponsors included the Scientific Affairs Division of NATO, together with the European Association of Remote Sensing Laboratories, the Council of Europe, the European Space Agency, the German Aerospace Establishment (DFVLR) and the Natural Environment Research Council.

Combining experts from the medical and materials sciences, the Institute considered current concepts in medical and materials sciences as they relate to implantable prostheses in orthopedic surgical practice. The syllabus included theory and applications of materials properties, physiological function, and host response to metal and non-metal materials. Total hip prostheses are the most common orthopedic device implanted today involved in over 200,000 operations. Failures occur at the rate of 10~-40~ at ~ to 10 years. Failures are due to loosening, infection, fracture of femoral components, or destruction of the pe 1 vi c components .' All these, and other problems related to the implantation of the devices, the surgical procedures, and device pathology, were. discussed in light of current, as well as, emerging technologies and scientific knowledge. Repeatedly, scientists designing prostheses became aware of a lack of understanding of physiological phenomena associated with biocompatibility; the interchange among practising physicians, basic scientists, and pathologists at this Institute was appreciated. We thank all the contributors and participants for their effort. Thanks are also due to the personnel of the Scientific Affairs Division of NATO. The daily routines of running the Institute were greatly facilitated by the efforts of Pedro Cuevas, M.D, Jose Gutierrez Diaz, M.D, and Dr. Hanita Kossowsky. The devoted help of Nir Kossovsky, M.D, in setting the conference and in editing this book, is sincerely appreci ated.

Climate varies on all scales of time and space, bya large variety of reasons. However, before any discussion of reasons can be performed it is necessary to realize the very facts of climate variability by means of observations or reconstructions, respectively. In this book we focus on observed long-term trends of selected climate elements (tempera ture, precipitation, humidity, pressure ) as revealed by direct measurements of the Euro pean station network within the recent 100 years. Of course, there are a number of problems in detail: Reliability and accuracy of data, time series homogeneity, statistical confidence oftrends and so on. We hope that these problems are addressed in an instructive and, as far as possible, exhausting way. The main purpose of this work, however, was to provide a collection of trend charts which specify the regional particularities of observed climate trends in different months or seasons of the year leading us to an 'Atlas of observed climate trends in Europe'. Keeping in mind the recent World Meteorological Organization (WMO) climate nor mal (CLINO) period, we have also calculated the 1961-1990 trends."

The contents of this volume are based largely on a symposium on cloud dynamics held in Hamburg, Germany, as a part of the Third General Assembly of the International Association of Mete- orology and Atmospheric Physics (IAMAP), 17-28 August-1981. Plans for this symposium were initiated by the Cloud Dynamics Group, appointed through the International Commission for Dynam- ic Meteorology (ICDM), IAMAP. Members of this group are Bruce Morton - Chairman, Australia; Tomio Asai - Secretary, Japan; E. M. Agee, USA; V. Andreyev, Bulgaria; K. Fradrich, FRG; M. W. Moncrieff, UK; R. S. Pastushkov, USSR; J. P. Chao, PR China; Bh. V. Ramanamurti, India; W. Roach, UK; J. Simpson, USA; J. T. Steiner, New Zealand; M. Yanai, USA. E. M. Agee served as con- vener of the symposium in Hamburg. Dynamic meteorology has grown rapidly and covered a great variety of fields since the foundation of ICDM, making it increas- ingly difficult for the Commission to manage all activities. In order to improve this situation, some ad-hoc Working Groups within ICDM were organized at the 1977 IAMAP meeting in Seattle. Each of these working groups, such as the one in Cloud Dynamics, deals with a particular sub-field of dynamic meteorology.

The objectives of this book are (1) to serve as a reasonably comprehensive text on the subject of drilling hydraulics and (2) to provide the field geologist with a quick reference to drilling hydraulics calculations. Chapter 1 introduces the basic principles of fluid properties, and Chapter 2 presents the general principles of fluid hydraulics. Chapters 3 through 10 analyze specific hydraulic considerations of the drilling process, such as viscometric measurements, pressure losses, swab and surge pressures, cuttings transport and hydraulic optimization. References are presented at the end of each section. The units and nomenclature are consistent throughout the manual. Equations are given generally in consistent S.1. units; some common expressions are also given in oilfield units. Nomenclature is explained after every equation when necessary, and a comprehensive list of the nomenclature used is given in Appendix A. Units are listed in Appendix B. In Appendix C, all the important equations are given in both S.1. and oilfield units. Appendix D contains example hydraulics calculations. A glossary is included. THEORY AND APPLICATION OF DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS 1 INTRODUCTION To dri 11 a we 11 safely and succes sfull y depends upon a thorough unders tandi ng of drilling hydraulics principles. Thus, drilling hydraulics is a very impor tant subject with which all logging geologists should be familiar."

The lntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has recently summarized the state ofthe art in research on climate change (Climate Change 1995). The most up to date research findings have been divided into three volumes: * the Science ofClimate Change (working group I), * the Impacts, Adaption and Mitigation of Climate Change (working group II), and * the Economic and Social Dimensions ofClimate Change (working group III) There is a general consensus that a serious change in climate can only be avoided if the future emissions of greenhouse gases are reduced considerably from the business as usual projection and if at the same time the natural sinks for greenhouse gases, in particular that of CO , are maintained at the present level or 2 preferrably increased. Forests, forestry and forestry industry are important parts of the global carbon cycle and therefore they are also part of the mitigation potentials in at least a threefold way: 1. During the time period between 1980 and 1989 there was a net emission of CO from changes in tropical land use (mostly tropical deforestation) of 2 1. 6 +/- 1 GtC/a, but at the same time it was estimated that the forests in the northem hemisphere have taken up 0. 5 +/- 0. 5 GtC/a and additionally other terrestrial sinks (including tropical forests where no clearing took place) have been a carbon sink ofthe order of l. 3 +/- l.

Southeast Asia constitutes one of the world's most extended rainforest regions. It is characterized by a high degree of biodiversity and contains a large variety of endemic species. Moreover, these forests provide a number of important and sin gular ecosystem services, like erosion protection and provision of high quality wa ter, which cannot be replaced by alternative ecosystems. However, various forms of encroachment, mostly those made by human interventions, seriously threaten the continuance of rainforests in this area. There is ample evidence that the rainforest resources, apart from large scale commercial logging, are exposed to danger particularly from its margin areas. These areas, which are characterized by intensive man-nature interaction, have been identified as extremely fragile systems. The dynamic equilibrium that bal ances human needs and interventions on the one hand, and natural regeneration capacity on the other, is at stake. The decrease of rainforest resources is, to a sub stantial degree, connected with the destabilization of these systems. Accordingly, the search for measures and processes, which prevent destabilization and promote stability is regarded as imperative. This refers to both the human and the natural part of the forest margin ecosystem."

Martin Parry University College, London, UK The 13 country studies collected in this re Adaptations Assessment published by the port represent the first of what is likely to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change become a worldwide, country-by-country (Carter et al., 1994) as an agreed technical estimate of the likely impacts of, and appro set of scientific methods for climate impact priate adaptations to, greenhouse-gas-in assessment and has written its own guidance duced global climate change. document, Guidance for Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment (U.S. CSP, 1994). Under the U.N. Framework Convention on The u.S. Country Studies Program devel Climate Change (UNFCCC), signatories oped the Guidance and other reviews of agreed to two near-term actions and one ma methodology into a nonspecialist set of jor subsequent one. The two near-term ac workbooks for use at the country level, tions are to make annual estimates of the which, backed up by advice from experi emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases, enced scientists from the United States and which are now being reported as part of a other countries, enabled local scientists to country-by-country inventory developed by conduct their own vulnerability and adapta the U.N. Environment Programme, the Or tion assessments."

Chance discovery means discovering chances - the breaking points in systems, the marketing windows in business, etc. It involves determining the significance of some piece of information about an event and then using this new knowledge in decision making. The techniques developed combine data mining methods for finding rare but important events with knowledge management, groupware, and social psychology. The reader will find many applications, such as finding information on the Internet, recognizing changes in customer behavior, detecting the first signs of an imminent earthquake, etc.

This first book dedicated to chance discovery covers the state of the art in the theory and methods and examines typical scenarios, and it thus appeals to researchers working on new techniques and algorithms and also to professionals dealing with real-world applications.

Within the last two decades, the experimental technology for the study of high temperature solid-vapor and liquid-vapor equilibria has mushroomed so fast that. both academic and industrial research ers desirous of working in this field -- be they physical chemists, metallurgists, ceramists, petrologists, crystal chemists, or mem bers of any of the several branches of materials science -- find themselves in the situation that in order to learn the art of the latest techniques, a period of apprenticeship or residency needs be spent at an institution or laboratory currently engaged in this type of solid-vapor or liquid-vapor research. The tech niques for control of the vapor phase at total pressures of one atmosphere or greater have not been well defined in the literature. Therefore, the purpose of this volume will be to serve as a labora tory manual for the control, calibration, and measurement of high temperature-high pressure equilibria. The avowed aims of this treatment of experimental techniques are: (1) to give, in terms understandable at the graduate student level, the laboratory procedures necessary to the design and utilization of good experimental technique, (2) to list the limitations, dangers, and technical pitfalls inherent or intrinsic to the described techniques, (3) to give theory and specific data only where they are essential to the experimental design, (4) to give with each chapter references that are extensive enough to serve as a bibliography of the state-of-the-art of technique development within the last decade."

The idea for the present Spilite Volume was born during the Spilite Symposium at the XXIIIrd session of the International Geological Con- gress in Prague, 1968. At that time, only a restricted number of petro- logists working on spilites was present and, therefore, the group assem- bled agreed that a Symposium Volume should also include recent papers by many other spilite specialists. At the same time it was agreed that the papers presented at the Symposium should be returned to the authors for changes and additions. This procedure of upgrading and amending the papers has continued until this year (1973) for various technical and editorial reasons. The information presented here is, therefore, up-to- date. To those familiar with the spilite problem it is obvious that the time had come for a review of its state. Also, the existing litera- ture had become so voluminous that a monographic review was necessary. Following a modern trend, the authorship for this review was spread among specialists with variable experience. For readers not necessarily familiar with the spilite problem, a brief summary is presented here. A short historical note is followed first by the observations, then by the interpretations, finally by some of the major features of scientific logic as they pertain to the problem of the primary or secondary origin of some of the rocks termed spilites and keratophyres.

The NATO Advanced Research Workshop on "Dynamics, Transport am. Photochemistry in the Middle Atmosphere of the Southern Hemisphere" was held in San Francisco, California, U.S.A., 15-17 April 1989. In addition to NATO, the workshop was supported by the University of California, Los Angeles, and by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, U.S.A. (NASA). The American Meteorological Society was a co-operating organization. The venue for the workshop was the Lone Mountain Conference Center of the University of San Francisco. The workshop was organized and directed by Dr A.O'Neill (Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Meteorological Office, Bracknell, U.K.) and Prof C.R. Mechoso (Dept of Atmospheric Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A.). The workshop was the third one held as part of the Middle Atmosphere in the Southern Hemisphere (MASH) project, an international effort (under the auspices of the Middle Atmosphere Program) to learn more about dynamics, transport and photochemistry in the middle atmosphere of the southern hemisphere. Before the discovery that, during recent years, a dramatic thinning of the ozone layer takes place over Antarctica in spring - the "ozone hole" - the middle atmosphere of the southern hemisphere had received much less attention than that of the northern hemisphere from meteorologists and atmospheric chemists. The MASH project was instituted to remedy this comparative lack of interest.

If one surveys the development of wind engineering, one comes to the conclusion that the challenge of urban climatology is one of the most important remaining tasks for the wind engineers. But what distinguishes wind engineering in urban areas from conventional wind engineering? Principally, the fact that the effects studied are usually unique to a particular situation, requiring consideration of the surroundings of the buildings. In the past, modelling criteria have been developed that make it possible to solve environmental problems with great confidence, and studies validated the models: at least in a neutrally stratified atmosphere. The approach adopted in the book is that of applied fluid mechanics, since this forms the basis for the evaluation of the urban wind field. Variables for air quality or loads are problem specific, or even random, and methods for studying them are based on risk analysis, which is also presented. Criteria are developed for a systematic approach to urban wind engineering problems, including parameter studies. The five sections of the book are: Fundamentals of urban boundary layer and dispersion; Forces on complex structures in built-up areas; Air pollution in cities; Numerical solution techniques; and Posters. A subject index is included.

Polarization Spectroscopy of Ionized Gases describes the physical principles of the technique and its applications to remote sensing. Transport phenomena and local anisotropies can be studied. The theoretical part of the book considers the basic phenomena of the ordering of the velocities of fast exciting charged particles. The polarization of the outer electron shells of excited atoms or molecules is described, and a variety of effects are examined in detail. An integral equation is derived which gives the intensity and polarization of emitted lines. Methods for solving the equation are analyzed. Universal spectropolarimetric remote sensing has been applied to low pressure gas discharges in the laboratory and to non-thermal processes in the solar atmosphere. For researchers interested in the remote sensing of ionized gases.

International concern for the continued growth of greenhouse gas emissions, and the potentially damaging consequences of resultant global climate change, led to the signing of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by 155 nations at the Earth Summit in June 1992. The Convention came into force on 21 March 1994, three months after receiving its 50th ratification. All Parties to the Convention are required to compile, periodically update, and publish national inventories of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and sinks using comparable methodologies. In support of this process, the US Country Studies Program (US CSP) is providing financial and technical assistance to 56 developing and transition countries for conducting national inventories. This book presents the results of preliminary national inventories prepared by countries participating in the US CSP that are ready to share their interim findings. In some cases, inventories were prepared with support from other organizations. Preliminary inventories of twenty countries in Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe and the Newly Independent States, and Latin America are presented, as well as regional and global syntheses of the national results. The regional and global syntheses also discuss results of eleven other preliminary national inventories that have been published elsewhere with the assistance of other programs. Results are discussed in the context of national and regional socioeconomic characteristics, and the regional and global syntheses compare national inventory estimates to other published estimates that are based largely on international databases. Papers also discuss inventory development issues, such as data collection and emission factor determination, and problems associated with applying the IPCC inventory methodologies. The preliminary inventory results reported here represent significant progress towards meeting country commitments under the Framework Convention, and provide useful information for refining international greenhouse gas emission databases and improving inventory methodologies. As the first book to compile national greenhouse gas emission estimates prepared by national experts in developing countries and countries with economies in transition, this will be an invaluable resource to scientists, policymakers, and development specialists in national, regional and global anthropogenic sources and sinks of greenhouse gases.

It is a pleasure to be asked to write the foreword to this interesting new book. When Professor Bedrikovetsky first accepted my invitation to spend an extended sabbatical period in the Department of Mineral Resources Engineering at Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, I hoped it would be a period of fruitful collaboration. This book, a short course and a variety of technical papers are tangible evidence of a successful stay in the UK. I am also pleased that Professor Bedrikovetsky acted on my suggestion to publish this book with Kluwer as part of the petroleum publications for which I am Series Editor. The book derives much of its origin from the unpublished Doctor of Science thesis which Professor Bedrikovetsky prepared in Russian while at the Gubkin Institute. The original DSc contained a number of discrete publications unified by an analytical mathematics approach to fluid flow in petroleum reservoirs. During his sabbatical stay at Imperial College, Professor Bedrikovetsky has refined and extended many of the chapters and has discussed each one with internationally recognised experts in the field. He received great encouragement and editorial advice from Dr Gren Rowan, who pioneered analytical methods in reservoir modelling at BP for many years.

The contents of this volume reflect to a large extent the efforts made by a group of Institutes at the ETH Zurich to develop new techniques for measurements of flows in fluids in the last decade. The motivation came from the study of tr sport and mixing processes in natural and industrial systems. One of the characteristic properties of turbulence is its high mixing efficiency. The techniques developed are therefore suitable, although not exclusively, for turbulence measurements. They can be subdivided into point-measurements and field-measurements. The aim of the point-measurements developed is to determine the three components of the velocity and all their first derivatives with good temporal resolution and accuracy in turbulent flows. The old and weIl established method of hot-wire anemometry was used for this purpose. One of the main achievements in this context is the construction of miniature multi-wire probes. This technique was introduced to the Institute of Hydromechanics and Water Resources Management of ETH Zurich by Profs. A. Tsinober and E. Kit from Tel-Aviv University. This was made possible by the generous financial support by ETH, for which I would like to express my gratitude on this occasion. In addition, Dr. F.E. Joergensen from DANTEC contributed an example of recent developments in the hardware ofConstant Temperature Anemometry (CTA), for which I am very thankful."

Climate change is one of the major global environmental problems, one that has the potential to confront us with great costs during the decades to come. Climate change is caused by emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO). As z deforestation leads to CO emissions and growing forests sequester CO, forestry z z projects provide us with options to mitigate CO effects. This study analyses the z contribution Jorestry projects can make within the context of climate change. The contribution of forestry projects is here discussed on two levels. On a first level, the COz effect of individual projects is analysed. On a second level, the study asks whether the analysis of forestry projects can contribute to questions on climate change which have been discussed in the economic literature during the past two decades. While most studies on forestry projects focus on particular details, predominantly on technical issues, this study takes a rather broad perspective, drawing together different relevant aspects: the stability of international agreements is discussed, costs and benefIts of reducing GHG emissions in industrial countries are reviewed, the underlying causes of deforestation are analysed and insights from resource economics are taken into consideration. Such a wide perspectiveallows the identifIcation, discussion and appreciation of problems and opportunities associated with forestry projects in the context of climate change which are otherwise not recognised.

Changes in climate and climate variability have an effect on people's behaviour around the world, and public institutions have an important part to play in influencing our ability to respond to and plan for climate risk. We may be able to reduce climate risk by seeking to mitigate the threat on the one hand, and by adapting to a changed climate on the other. Another theme of the book is the integrated role of adaptation and mitigation in framing issues and performing analyses. Adaptation costs fall most heavily on the poor and special attention needs to be paid to adaptation by the poorest populations. An integrating framework is also presented to provide the context for an expansive typology of terms to apply to adaptation. The 12 papers collected here use methods from a variety of disciplines and focus on different time frames for decision making, from short term to the very long term. Readership: Technically trained readers familiar with the policy issues surrounding climate change and interested in learning the scientific underpinnings of issues related to societal adaptation.

For the very first time, this book provides updated, integrated and organized, theoretical and methodological information on regional climate change and the associated environmental and socio-economic impacts on a regional scale. The most recent findings in the field of long-term climate change, which improve our understanding of the global climate puzzle, will be presented. Readers are introduced to state-of-the-art research in downscaling and GCMs, which involve the construction of reliable regional climate scenarios and the solution to key problems regarding the assessment of the impacts of climate change in the most important geographical areas of the world, from the Arctic to Antarctic regions, with special emphasis on the Northern Hemisphere.

Some 35 years ago I was somewhat precariously balanced in a drilling derrick aligning a whipstock into a directional hole in North Holland by the Stokenbury method, and no doubt thinking to myself that I was at the very forefront of technology. During the intervening period it has become obvious to many of us that some of the most significant technical advances in the oil business have been made in drilling, and particularly in the fields of offshore and directional drilling. It has also become apparent that the quality of the technical literature describing these advances has not kept pace with that of the advances themselves in many instances. A particular glaring example of this has been in the field of directional drilling where a large literature gap has existed for many years. I am delighted to see this gap now filled with the present volume by my friend Tom Inglis. Indeed it is only after reading his comprehensive book that I realise the extent of my own ignorance of the latest techniques of directional drilling and how desirable it was to have an authoritative text on the subject. I feel sure that this volume will be welcomed by the industry and warmly recommend it to all who are in any way involved and interested in the fascinating world of drilling.

The need to predict, understand, and optimize complex physical and c- mical processes occurring in and around the earth, such as groundwater c- tamination, oil reservoir production, discovering new oil reserves, and ocean hydrodynamics, has been increasingly recognized. Despite their seemingly disparate natures, these geoscience problems have many common mathe- tical and computational characteristics. The techniques used to describe and study them are applicable across a broad range of areas. The study of the above problems through physical experiments, mat- matical theory, and computational techniques requires interdisciplinary col- boration between engineers, mathematicians, computational scientists, and other researchers working in industry, government laboratories, and univ- sities. By bringing together such researchers, meaningful progress can be made in predicting, understanding, and optimizing physical and chemical processes. The International Workshop on Fluid Flow and Transport in Porous - dia was successfully held in Beijing, China, August 2{6, 1999. The aim of this workshop was to bring together applied mathematicians, computational scientists, and engineers working actively in the mathematical and nume- cal treatment of ?uid ?ow and transport in porous media. A broad range of researchers presented papers and discussed both problems and current, state-of-the-art techniques.

This book does not give a prediction of what the efficiency will be of the energy use of industrial processes in the future. However, it does give an exploration of limits to the efficiency of current processes and an indication of what might be achieved if new technologies can be developed. At the Department of Science, Technology and Society of Utrecht University research had been done to the opportunities for improvement of the energy efficiency in the short term since the 1980's. This had resulted in a comprehensive database on energy efficient measures. This database and a possible application are described in Chapter 3 of this book. The use of the database induced new research themes around efficiency improvement, e.g. concerning barriers for implementation of measures. It was around 1993 that I did a preliminary study to the potential for efficiency improvement in the long term. Historical analysis had shown us that the short term potential stayed constant over the years. It seemed to be replenished by the introduction of new technologies. This lead to the question whether there are limits to the efficiency, taking into account both thermodynamic considerations and ideas on the development and dissemination of new technologies.