This EA presents information on the potential impacts associated with the distribution of a grant to Conergy for the construction of a solar facility in Philadelphia. This EA was prepared in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.); the National Environmental Policy Act, Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations 40 CFR Parts 1500-1508; and DOE NEPA Implementation Procedures 10 CFR 1021. This EA analyzes the following resource areas: Natural Resources - including water resources, geology, topography and soils, vegetation and wildlife, air quality, and noise; Historic Resources - including visual, and historical resources; Infrastructure - including roadways and traffic, potable water, storm water management, sanitary sewer, energy systems, solid waste, and hazardous material; Socioeconomic Resources - including land use, planning policies, demographics and environmental justice, and human health and safety. DOE's purpose and need is to ensure that SEP funds are used for activities that meet Congress's statutory aims to improve energy efficiency, reduce dependence on imported oil, decrease energy consumption, or promote renewable energy. However, it is not DOE's role to dictate to Pennsylvania how to allocate its funds among these objectives or to prescribe the projects it should pursue. PEDA's purpose and need is to take action to help fulfill its mission to finance clean, advanced energy projects in Pennsylvania, including solar energy projects. Applications are evaluated using criteria including but not limited to technical and financial feasibility of the project, number and quality of jobs created or preserved, and other economic benefits for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Projects must show financial commitment from at least one source other than PEDA and demonstrate a net environmental benefit to Pennsylvania. Conergy's purpose and need is to facilitate green job creation, economic development and growth and improve and drive the solar market place in Pennsylvania.

In support of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Advanced Research Program, conceptual systems and cost analyses were developed by the Parsons Corporation for coal processing plants to produce hydrogen while recovering carbon dioxide (CO2) for offsite processing or sequestration. These plants had been referred to as decarbonized fuel plants, but are now called hydrogen fuel plants. The scope of work for this analysis entailed the following: Identifying alternative processes and technologies utilized for production of hydrogen from coal; Reviewing the technical and economic characteristics of developmental materials and technologies for separating hydrogen and oxygen from gas mixtures; Conceptualizing process plant designs that utilize developing technologies and materials, resulting in costs of product and CO2 sequestration significantly lower than with conventional approaches; Comparing the costs of a hydrogen fuel plant with plants designed to produce hydrogen from coal utilizing conventional technology; Performing sensitivity analyses on the baseline conceptual hydrogen fuel plants to determine the effect of modifying plant design on cost of product; Presenting data and results on this study at periodic conferences and workshops. An alternative plant was conceived for producing hydrogen from coal utilizing a hydrogen separation device (HSD) being developed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). The HSD is based on a high-temperature membrane separation concept that can be designed to selectively separate hydrogen from other gases. By utilizing the HSD, it should be possible to separate hydrogen from CO2 passively and economically. This report is a compilation of a series of letter reports issued between 1999 and 2001 to document the activity and results from this investigation. It includes the following: An establishment of a baseline plant design for hydrogen production based on the ORNL membrane concept, A comparison of this design to the conventional methods of producing hydrogen from natural gas and coal, and An evaluation of the HSD based on gasifying a mixture of Wyodak coal and biomass.

The Department of Energy (DOE) prepared this Environmental Assessment (EA) to evaluate the potential environmental consequences of providing a financial assistance grant under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (Recovery Act) (Recovery Act; Public Law 111-5, 123 Stat. 115) to Battelle Memorial Institute to facilitate the installation of 540 additional solar panels, 10 solar concentrating modules, and 8 small wind energy systems at the City of Ellensburg's Renewable Energy Park located in Ellensburg, Kittitas County, Washington. This EA analyzes the potential environmental impacts of DOE's proposed action of providing the Recovery Act funding and of the No-Action Alternative. In this EA, DOE evaluated impacts to air quality, noise, aesthetics and visual resources, soils and geology, water resources, biological resources, and cultural resources. After performing a screening analysis of other environmental resource areas, DOE concluded that impacts to some aspects of the environment would not be likely to occur or would be negligible. The proposed project would be designed in compliance with federal and state air quality regulations, would reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and would have a net beneficial impact on air quality in the region. Operation of the concentrating solar modules and eight small wind systems would cause a negligible increase in noise outdoors near the adjacent interstate and Recreation Park. The aesthetics of the City of Ellensburg's Renewable Energy Park would change with the addition of ten 18-foot diameter solar concentrating modules and eight wind towers ranging from 40 to 100 feet in height; however, these changes would be in compliance with the City and County proposed regulations for wind turbines. Adverse impacts to visual resources would be minimal. There would be no adverse impacts to the 100-year floodplain profiles associated with Reecer Creek, and no increase in risk to lives or property in the area from the project. Developing 3 acres for further construction of the Renewable Energy Park would not adversely impact any plant or animal species because the project site is small and isolated from larger tracks of undisturbed land, and because plant and animal species found there are common and widespread in the region. The risk of collisions between the wind turbines and migratory birds and bats is not likely due to the configuration of the turbines (parallel to bird movements toward the wetlands and grouped configuration), the relatively short height of the turbines, and placement in previously disturbed habitat. In support of this EA, a cultural resources inventory was conducted for the area of potential effect (project site). No archaeological resources were identified, and DOE determined that no historic properties would be affected by Battelle's project. In summary, expanding the Renewable Energy Park with additional solar panels, solar concentrating modules, and small wind turbines would not likely result in significant adverse environmental impacts, particularly considering the other existing surrounding uses.

This environmental assessment (EA) addresses the potential environmental impacts of a proposed project located at the Morgantown, West Virginia, site of the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL). The Performance Verification Laboratory (PVL) project was proposed in response to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) Facilities and Equipment Upgrade Lab Call #09-002. NETL will design, construct, and make operational a U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) PVL facility for verifying the energy performance of selected appliances and equipment to facilitate improved enforcement of DOE energy conservation standards and DOE/Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ENERGY STAR(r) programs. The PVL facility will build upon the capabilities of NETL's existing Appliance Technology Evaluation Center (ATEC). Currently, ATEC is used to help DOE improve its test procedures through experimental investigations (testing and other evaluations) of appliances/equipment. PVL will expand the current ATEC capabilities and add large-scale performance verification testing that will complement DOE's increasing focus on emerging equipment and appliance standards activities. The resulting data from this facility will enhance existing standards and test procedure development at NETL, as well as provide a valuable resource to support compliance and enforcement activities for the Energy Conservation Standards program within DOE. Executive Order 13123, "Greening the Government Through Efficient Energy Management," requires federal agencies to improve their environmental and energy performance and to meet specified environmental performance goals. Constructing an energy efficient "green" building would allow NETL to reduce electricity use and meet environmental performance goals. This EA has been prepared to satisfy requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 (42 United States Code 4321 et seq.) and its implementing regulations found in Title 40, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Parts 1500-1508 (Council on Environmental Quality) and Title 10, CFR, Part 1021 (Department of Energy). Results of this assessment indicate that the construction activities associated with the proposed project would potentially have minor impacts on permitted discharge areas, groundwater, and greenhouse gases (GHGs). An increase in the number of cars and trucks associated with the construction activities would negatively impact traffic and public facilities and services. Operation of heavy machinery during construction would also have an adverse effect on air quality (i.e., dust and exhaust particulate air emissions) and increase noise and vibration in the immediate vicinity of the work area. These effects would be controlled to the greatest extent possible to minimize their impact. The construction of the PVL facility would positively impact the local area through the creation of 24 jobs. Operation of the PVL facility would result in the creation of approximately 14 permanent jobs at the Morgantown NETL site, most of which would be new hires. Traffic and public facilities and services would be negatively impacted by the increased flow of cars and delivery trucks to the new facility. Because the operation of this facility would support the increased penetration and acceptance of energy-efficient appliances and equipment in the marketplace, the work done at the PVL would ultimately contribute to a reduction in GHG productio

The Department of Energy (DOE) prepared this Environmental Assessment (EA) to assess the potential for impacts to the human and natural environment of its Proposed Action-providing financial assistance to FutureFuel under a cooperative agreement. DOE's objective is to support the development of the EDV industry in an effort to substantially reduce the United States' consumption of petroleum, in addition to stimulating the United States' economy. More specifically, DOE's objective is to accelerate the development and production of various EDV systems by building or increasing domestic manufacturing capacity for advanced automotive batteries, their components, recycling facilities, and EDV components. This work will enable market introduction of various electric vehicle technologies by lowering the cost of battery packs, batteries, and electric propulsion systems for EDVs through high-volume manufacturing. Under the terms of the cooperative agreement, DOE would provide approximately 50 percent of the funding to FutureFuel to partially fund the retrofitting of an existing manufacturing building to a commercial-scale plant to produce intermediate anode material for high-performance Li-ion batteries (referred to as the "Proposed Project" within this EA). An existing FutureFuel manufacturing building (48,000 square feet, 5 stories) would be retrofitted to accommodate the proposed plant. The existing building that would be reconfigured currently includes over half of the major process equipment and pumps required to produce intermediate anode material. The goal would be to increase the product supply from the current 1,000,000 pounds per year at an off-site plant to 10,000,000 pounds per year, which would be sufficient for supplying over 2,000,000 HEVs. Additionally, the project would create approximately 33 permanent jobs. The environmental analysis identified that the most notable changes, although minor, to result from FutureFuel's Proposed Project would occur in the following areas: air quality and greenhouse gas, surface water and groundwater, transportation and traffic, solid and hazardous wastes, and human health and safety. No significant environmental effects were identified in analyzing the potential consequences of these changes.

For a century, almost all light-duty vehicles (LDVs) have been powered by internal combustion engines operating on petroleum fuels. Energy security concerns about petroleum imports and the effect of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on global climate are driving interest in alternatives. Transitions to Alternative Vehicles and Fuels assesses the potential for reducing petroleum consumption and GHG emissions by 80 percent across the U.S. LDV fleet by 2050, relative to 2005. This report examines the current capability and estimated future performance and costs for each vehicle type and non-petroleum-based fuel technology as options that could significantly contribute to these goals. By analyzing scenarios that combine various fuel and vehicle pathways, the report also identifies barriers to implementation of these technologies and suggests policies to achieve the desired reductions. Several scenarios are promising, but strong, and effective policies such as research and development, subsidies, energy taxes, or regulations will be necessary to overcome barriers, such as cost and consumer choice. Table of Contents Front Matter Overview Summary 1 Introduction 2 Alternative Vehicle Technologies: Status, Potential, and Barriers 3 Alternative Fuels 4 Consumer Attitudes and Barriers 5 Modeling the Transition to Alternative Vehicles and Fuels 6 Policies for Reducing GHG Emissions from and Petroleum Use by Light-Duty Vehicles 7 Policy Options Appendixes Appendix A: Statement of Task Appendix B: Committee Biographies Appendix C: Meetings and Presentations Appendix D: Reports on Transportation Greenhouse Gas Emissions Projections to 2050 Appendix E: Glossary, Conversion Factors, and Acronyms and Abbreviations Appendix F: Vehicles Appendix G: Fuels Appendix H: Modeling

The basic question underlying our energy policy debates is this: Should we be free to generate more and more energy using fossil fuels? Or should we restrict and progressively outlaw fossil fuels as "dirty energy"? I believe that if we look at the big picture, the facts are clear. If we want a healthy, livable environment, then we must be free to use fossil fuels. Why? Because for the foreseeable future, fossil fuels provide the key to a great environment: abundant, affordable, reliable energy.

Launched to tie-in with the United Nations Climate Change Summit in Copenhagen (COP15), Dr Steffen Bohm and Siddhartha Dabhi's new book, Upsetting the Offset: The Political Economy of Carbon Markets, challenges the environmental claims made about carbon markets and carbon offsetting schemes. The book - which collates contributions from more than 30 leading experts - is another voice in the growing criticism about the business of carbon and how it has failed to deliver promised reductions in greenhouse gases. The book contributes to a growing field of critics of carbon markets by highlighting several up-to-date examples of where the system has failed and often led to negative social, economic and environmental impacts in deprived countries. http: //mayflybooks.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/9781906948078UpsettingtheOffset.pdf"

Poorly implemented energy subsidies are economically costly to taxpayers and damage the environment. This report aims at providing the emerging lessons form a representative sample of case studies in 20 developing countries that could help policy makers to address implementation challenges, including overcoming political economy and affordability constraints. The sample has selected on the basis of a number of criteria, including the country s level of development (and consumption), developing country region, energy security and the fuel it subsidies (petroleum fuel, electricity, natural gas). The case studies were supported by data collection related to direct budgetary subsidies, fuel and electricity tariffs, and household survey data. The analysis provides strong evidence of the success of reforms in reducing the associated fiscal burden. For the sample of countries, the average energy subsidy recorded in the budget was reduced from 1.8% in 2004 to 1.3%GDP in 2010. The reduction of subsidies is particularly remarkable for net energy importers. Pass-through of international fuel prices was also notable in the case of electricity generated by fossil fuel. For the sample of countries, the average end-user electricity tariff increased by 50%, from USD 6 cents in 2002 to USD 9 cents per kWh in 2010. In spite of the relatively price inelastic demand for gasoline and diesel, fossil fuel consumption in the road sector (per unit of GDP) declined in the 20 countries examined from 53 (44) in 2002 to about 23 kt oil equivalent per million of GDP in 2008 in the case of gasoline (Diesel). The most notable decline in consumption was recorded in the low and lower middle income countries. This reflects the much higher rate of growth in GDP in this group of countries and underlines the opportunities to influence future consumption behavior rather than modifying the existing consumption patterns, overcoming inertia and vested interests. Similar trends are recorded for power consumption. While there is no one-size-fits-all model for subsidy reform, implementation of compensatory social policies and an effective communication strategy, before the changes are introduced, reduces helped with the implementation of reforms."

The commencement of the World Crisis is attributed to the crash of the housing market in 2006. This, in turn, uncovered the sub-prime mortgage debacle which generated the banking crisis in 2007. The American auto industry demise and the full world recession followed in 2008. This book analyzes that the trouble started before 1979 and the deposing of the Shah of Iran which was related to the issue of oil. The influence of oil caused the desert wars and the 9/11 event in 2001 and the start of the Iraq war in 2002. These actions were the main reasons for the price of oil escalating astronomically from $21 per barrel in 2001 to a spot price of $148 per barrel in 2008. The average 2008 price was $91 per barrel. A price of $80 per barrel represents a yearly cost of $700 billion to the American economy. The book re-emphasizes the importance of transportation to the world's activities and economy. It also stresses the vital need to respond meaningfully to the conversation of oil and to decide on a replacement for it generated from a renewable material. The book is based on truth and fact regardless of social and political correctness.

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology could provide a technological bridge for achieving near to midterm GHG emission reduction goals. Integrated CCS technology is still under development and has noteworthy challenges, which would be possible to overcome through the implementation of large-scale demonstration projects. In order to assist developing countries to better understand issues related to potential technology deployment, there is a need to start analyzing various numerous challenges facing CCS within the economic and legal context of developing countries and countries in transition. This report is the first effort of the World Bank Group to contribute to a deeper understanding of (a) the integration of power generation with CCS technologies, as well as their costs; (b) regulatory barriers to the deployment of CCS; and (c) global financing requirements for CCS and applicable project finance structures involving instruments of multilateral development institutions. This report does not provide prescriptive solutions to overcome these barriers, since action must be taken on a country-by-country basis, taking account of different circumstances and national policies. Individual governments should decide their priorities on climate change mitigation and adopt appropriate measures accordingly. The analyses presented in this report may take on added relevance, depending on the future direction of international climate negotiations and domestic legal and policy measures in both developed and developing countries, and how they serve to encourage carbon sequestration. We expect that this report will provide insights for policy makers, stakeholders, private financiers, and donors in meeting the challenges of the deployment of climate change mitigation technologies and CCS in particular.|Bodies move, and they express. There is a body language, and there is a language employed to refer to the body, its parts, and the states of its being. Consciously and unconsciously people judge each other according to body and clothing behavior. What one thinks one expresses is not necessarily how one is seen and judged, and the variety of observations made of the body is diverse. Bodily behavior and interpretations of this behavior face change at frontiers of culture areas, or when cultures meet each other as a result of migration. This book addresses and expands upon these issues. Soheila Shahshahani teaches at the Shahid Beheshti University, Teheran, Iran.

The Collapse of Common Sense: Preservation of Big Oil and the Big Three Automakers. In 2003 "FreedomCAR" (Freedom Cooperative Automotive Research) was created as a public-private partnership between the United States Department of Energy, BP America, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, Shell Hydrogen, and The United States Council for Automotive Research (USCAR - a partnership among Daimler/Chrysler, Ford Motor Company and General Motors). What are the oil and automotive corporations doing together? What happened to Toyota's RAV4-EV program that produced 100% electric sports utility vehicles (that's right, SUV's ) that are still running, today, at a cost of two cents per mile? Engineer Nevres Cefo shows how Americans are being systematically misinformed and trapped with only one choice for their future transportation needs: the internal combustion engine and liquid fuels. Can we change the course of where we are going and how we get there? Yes we can, and Cefo shows you how to do it.

This book presents a history of the U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation (SFC) set in the context of the country's last large-scale energy crisis, which hit in the 1970s. 'Synthetic fuels' can be derived from solid coal and oil shale resources, which in the United States contain the energy equivalent many times over of all the oil in the Middle East. The author was Vice President of SFC and head of the U.S. Department of Treasury office overseeing the funded projects for ten years after Congress terminated the program in 1986. "This book recreates a vitally important story about our nation's energy planning that has not been touched on before in any serious fashion. It fills a gap in our understanding of how and why we havw wrestled ineffectively with questions of energy independence for too many decades." -Jack Prostko, Ph.D., The College of Professional Studies, The George Washington University. "This book is the only substantive history of a once-prominent government program that might as well have reached considerable size and scope. Beyond its role as historical resource, the work possesses a relevance to current events on the one hand and an insight into the workings of government on the other." -Douglas Seay, Senior staff on the House Foreign Affairs Committee.

This applied study addresses the large flood exposures of Central Europe and proposes efficient financial and risk transfer mechanisms to mitigate fiscal losses from such natural catastrophes. In 2010 the V-4 Visegrad countries (i.e., Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia) demonstrated their historical vulnerability to floods - Poland suffered $3.2 billion in flood related losses, comparable to it $3.5 billion of losses in 1997. Flood modeling analysis of the V-4 shows that a disaster event with a 5 percent probability in any given year can lead to economic losses in these countries of between 0.6 percent to 1.9 percent of GDP, as well as between 2.2 percent to 10.7 percent of government revenues. Larger events could quadruple such losses. The European Union Solidarity Fund is available as a mechanism for disasters but it comes into effect at only very high levels of losses, does not provide sufficient funding, and is not speedy. An insurance-like mechanism for National Governments can be tailored for country-portfolio needs for buildings, properties and critical infrastructure. By virtue of the broad territorial scope, fiscal support should use mechanisms that provide payments triggered by physical flood measurements in selected areas (rather than site-by-site losses as in the traditional insurance industry). A multi-country mechanism for insurance pooling of risks to protect infrastructure can also provide major cost efficiencies for all governments, using parametric-or index contracts. Savings from pooling can range from 25 to 33 percent of the financing costs that each country would otherwise have paid on its own. There are several instruments and options for both insurance, and debt financed mechanisms for funding catastrophes. All instruments can be analyzed based on equivalencies in terms of market spreads. A hybrid-like instrument, the catastrophe bond, is really a risk transfer instrument but structured as a debt security. The V-4 countries should therefore begin to set up the financial mechanisms to prevent major fiscal losses from future catastrophic floods and avoid fiscal disruptions when these occur. The instruments proposed can be market tested and supplemented with exacting studies on hydrology and topography used to fine tune the loss estimations per event and where property and infrastructure are exposed.|Kill the Messenger is perhaps the most thorough and authoritative work in defense of educational testing ever written. Phelps points out that much research conducted by education insiders on the topic is based on ideological preference or profound self-interest. It is not surprising that they arrive at emphatically anti-testing conclusions. Much, if not most, of this hostile research is passed on to the public by journalists as if it were neutral, objective, and independent. This volume explains and refutes many of the common criticisms of testing; describes testing opponents strategies, through case studies of Texas and the SAT; illustrates the profound media bias against testing; acknowledges testings limitations, and suggests how it can be improved; and finally, outlines the consequences of losing the war on standardized testing.

On April 20, 2010, the "Deepwater Horizon" oil rig exploded, killing eleven workers and creating the largest oil spill in the history of U.S. offshore drilling. But this wasn't the first time British Petroleum and its cost-cutting practices destroyed parts of the natural world. It also was not the first time that BP's negligence resulted in the loss of human life, ruined family businesses, or shattered dreams. From Alaska to Kansas to the Gulf, journalist Mike Magner has been tracking BP's reckless path for years, and in "Poisoned Legacy" he focuses, for the first time, on the human price of BP's rise to power.

The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon challenges collegiate teams to design, build, and operate solar-powered houses that are cost-effective, energy-efficient, and attractive. The winner of the competition is the team that best blends affordability, consumer appeal, and design excellence with optimal energy production and maximum efficiency.

Our future depends on what we do about energy. This stark fact, clear since the oil embargo of the 1970s, has been hammered home through crisis after crisis and yet our government has failed to come up with a coherent energy policy. John Deutch, with his extraordinary mix of technical, scholarly, corporate, and governmental expertise in the realm of energy, is uniquely qualified to explain what has stood in the way of progress on this most pressing issue. His book is at once an eye-opening history of the muddled practices that have passed for energy policy over the past thirty years, and a cogent account of what we can and should learn from so many breakdowns of strategy and execution.

Three goals drive any comprehensive energy policy: develop an effective approach to climate change; transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy technologies; and increase the efficiency of energy use to reduce dependence on imported oil. Why has every effort in this direction eventually fallen short? Deutch identifies the sources of this failure in our popular but unrealistic goals, our competing domestic and international agendas, and our poor analysis in planning, policy-making, and administering government programs. Most significantly, "The Crisis in Energy Policy" clarifies the need to link domestic and global considerations, as well as the critical importance of integrating technical, economic, and political factors. Written for experts and citizens alike, this book will strengthen the hand of anyone concerned about the future of energy policy.

This book examines the plans and goals to secure and transform America's energy future. Even as we develop next generation energy technologies, we will continue to rely on oil and gas. Last year, U.S. crude production reached its highest level since 2003. But we must ensure that production is safe, responsible and efficient. In the wake of Deepwater Horizon, the Administration has reformed safety and environmental standards for oil and gas exploration, making structural reforms within the Department of the Interior to improve oversight. At the same time, we are encouraging exploration, development and production; rewarding industry for effectively and responsibly utilising resources that belong to the American people. Additionally, we are encouraging the exploration of new frontiers of production and of new ways to safely make use of domestic assets like our vast reserves of natural gas.

Since early recorded history, people have been harnessing the energy of the wind. In the United States in the late 19th century, settlers began using windmills to pump water for farms and ranches, and later, to generate electricity for homes and industry. Industrialism led to a gradual decline in the use of windmills. The steam engine replaced European water-pumping windmills, and in the 1930s, the Rural Electrification Administration's programs brought inexpensive electric power to most rural areas in the US. However, industrialization also sparked the development of larger windmills, wind turbines, to generate electricity.

After experiencing strong growth in the mid-1980s, the U.S. wind industry hit a plateau during the electricity restructuring period in the 1990s and then regained momentum in 1999. Industry growth has since responded positively to policy incentives.

Although wind power currently provides only about 1% of U.S. electricity needs, it is growing more rapidly than any other energy source.

Wind power has negligible fuel costs, but high capital costs. The estimated average cost per unit incorporates the cost of construction of the turbine and transmission facilities, borrowed funds, return to investors (including cost of risk), estimated annual production, and other components, averaged over the projected useful life of the equipment, which may be in excess of twenty years.

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups: the horizontal-axis variety and the vertical-axis design. Utility-scale turbines range in size from 100 kilowatts to as large as several megawatts. Larger turbines are grouped together into wind farms which provide bulk power to the electrical grid. Single small turbines (below 100 kilowatts) are used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or water pumping. Small turbines are sometimes used in connection with diesel generators, batteries, and photovoltaic systems. These systems are called hybrid wind systems and are typically used in remote, off-grid locations where a connection to the utility grid is not available.

A key challenge for wind energy is that electricity production depends on when winds blow rather than when consumers need power. Wind's variability can create added expenses and complexity in balancing supply and demand on the grid. Recent studies imply that these integration costs do not become significant (5%-10% of wholesale prices) until wind turbines account for 15%-30% of the capacity in a given control area.

Opposition to wind power arises for environmental, aesthetic, or aviation security reasons. New public-private partnerships have been established to address more comprehensively problems with avian (bird and bat) deaths resulting from wind farms. Some stakeholders oppose the construction of wind plants for visual reasons, especially in pristine or highly-valued areas.

Wind technology has improved significantly over the past two decades, and wind energy has become increasingly competitive with other power generation options. Federal wind power policy has centered primarily on the production tax credit (PTC), a business incentive to operate wind facilities. The PTC was extended through 2013. While wind energy still depends on federal tax incentives to compete, key uncertainties like climate policy, fossil fuel prices, and technology progress could dominate future cost competitiveness.

Full Table of Contents, Sample Sections, and additional resources are available on the book's web site: www.TCNWind.com

Over the coming decades, the supply of electric power will need to expand to meet the growing demand for electricity, but how the production and use of electricity develops will have broad ramifications for the diverse economies and societies of Latin America and the Caribbean. This report discusses the critical issues for the power sector considering a baseline scenario to 2030 for countries and sub-regions. Among these critical issues are the demand for electricity, the total new supply of electric generating capacity needed, the technology and fuel mix of the generating capacity, and the CO2 emissions of the sector. Under modest GDP growth assumptions, the demand for electricity in Latin America and the Caribbean would more than double by 2030. The analysis suggests that under any economic scenario, it will be challenging for the Region to meet future electricity demand. The report shows that meeting the demand for electricity in Latin America and the Caribbean can be achieved by not only building new generating capacity by the expansion of hydropower and natural gas, but by relying on an increased supply of non-hydro renewables, expanding electricity trade, and making use of supply and demand-side energy efficiency to lower the overall demand for electricity. Some recommendations derived from the report are the need for strengthening regulations and market design of hydropower and gas power generation projects and the need to design supportive policies to develop renewable energy technologies and promote energy efficiency measures. The primary audience to which this report is addressed are policy makers, power sector planners and stakeholders.