Paolo Mancosu presents a series of innovative studies in the history and the philosophy of logic and mathematics in the first half of the twentieth century. The Adventure of Reason is divided into five main sections: history of logic (from Russell to Tarski); foundational issues (Hilbert's program, constructivity, Wittgenstein, Goedel); mathematics and phenomenology (Weyl, Becker, Mahnke); nominalism (Quine, Tarski); semantics (Tarski, Carnap, Neurath). Mancosu exploits extensive untapped archival sources to make available a wealth of new material that deepens in significant ways our understanding of these fascinating areas of modern intellectual history. At the same time, the book is a contribution to recent philosophical debates, in particular on the prospects for a successful nominalist reconstruction of mathematics, the nature of finitist intuition, the viability of alternative definitions of logical consequence, and the extent to which phenomenology can hope to account for the exact sciences.

This book introduces a new approach to building models of bounded arithmetic, with techniques drawn from recent results in computational complexity. Propositional proof systems and bounded arithmetics are closely related. In particular, proving lower bounds on the lengths of proofs in propositional proof systems is equivalent to constructing certain extensions of models of bounded arithmetic. This offers a clean and coherent framework for thinking about lower bounds for proof lengths, and it has proved quite successful in the past. This book outlines a brand new method for constructing models of bounded arithmetic, thus for proving independence results and establishing lower bounds for proof lengths. The models are built from random variables defined on a sample space which is a non-standard finite set and sampled by functions of some restricted computational complexity. It will appeal to anyone interested in logical approaches to fundamental problems in complexity theory.

In this 1987 text Professor Jech gives a unified treatment of the various forcing methods used in set theory, and presents their important applications. Product forcing, iterated forcing and proper forcing have proved powerful tools when studying the foundations of mathematics, for instance in consistency proofs. The book is based on graduate courses though some results are also included, making the book attractive to set theorists and logicians.

Introduction to Mathematical Proofs helps students develop the necessary skills to write clear, correct, and concise proofs. Unlike similar textbooks, this one begins with logic since it is the underlying language of mathematics and the basis of reasoned arguments. The text then discusses deductive mathematical systems and the systems of natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. It also covers elementary topics in set theory, explores various properties of relations and functions, and proves several theorems using induction. The final chapters introduce the concept of cardinalities of sets and the concepts and proofs of real analysis and group theory. In the appendix, the author includes some basic guidelines to follow when writing proofs. This new edition includes more than 125 new exercises in sections titled More Challenging Exercises. Also, numerous examples illustrate in detail how to write proofs and show how to solve problems. These examples can serve as models for students to emulate when solving exercises. Several biographical sketches and historical comments have been included to enrich and enliven the text. Written in a conversational style, yet maintaining the proper level of mathematical rigor, this accessible book teaches students to reason logically, read proofs critically, and write valid mathematical proofs. It prepares them to succeed in more advanced mathematics courses, such as abstract algebra and analysis.

Relational mathematics is to operations research and informatics what numerical mathematics is to engineering: it is intended to help modelling, reasoning, and computing. Its applications are therefore diverse, ranging from psychology, linguistics, decision aid, and ranking to machine learning and spatial reasoning. Although many developments have been made in recent years, they have rarely been shared amongst this broad community of researchers. This comprehensive 2010 overview begins with an easy introduction to the topic, assuming a minimum of prerequisites; but it is nevertheless theoretically sound and up to date. It is suitable for applied scientists, explaining all the necessary mathematics from scratch using a multitude of visualised examples, via matrices and graphs. It ends with tangible results on the research level. The author illustrates the theory and demonstrates practical tasks in operations research, social sciences and the humanities.

In recent years, Artificial Intelligence researchers have largely focused their efforts on solving specific problems, with less emphasis on 'the big picture' - automating large scale tasks which require human-level intelligence to undertake. The subject of this book, automated theory formation in mathematics, is such a large scale task. Automated theory formation requires the invention of new concepts, the calculating of examples, the making of conjectures and the proving of theorems. This book, representing four years of PhD work by Dr. Simon Colton demonstrates how theory formation can be automated. Building on over 20 years of research into constructing an automated mathematician carried out in Professor Alan Bundy's mathematical reasoning group in Edinburgh, Dr. Colton has implemented the HR system as a solution to the problem of forming theories by computer. HR uses various pieces of mathematical software, including automated theorem provers, model generators and databases, to build a theory from the bare minimum of information - the axioms of a domain. The main application of this work has been mathematical discovery, and HR has had many successes. In particular, it has invented 20 new types of number of sufficient interest to be accepted into the Encyclopaedia of Integer Sequences, a repository of over 60,000 sequences contributed by many (human) mathematicians.

"Handbook of the History of Logic" brings to the development of logic the best in modern techniques of historical and interpretative scholarship. Computational logic was born in the twentieth century and evolved in close symbiosis with the advent of the first electronic computers and the growing importance of computer science, informatics and artificial intelligence. With more than ten thousand people working in research and development of logic and logic-related methods, with several dozen international conferences and several times as many workshops addressing the growing richness and diversity of the field, and with the foundational role and importance these methods now assume in mathematics, computer science, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, linguistics, law and many engineering fields where logic-related techniques are used inter alia to state and settle correctness issues, the field has diversified in ways that even the pure logicians working in the early decades of the twentieth century could have hardly anticipated.

Logical calculi, which capture an important aspect of human thought, are now amenable to investigation with mathematical rigour and computational support and fertilized the early dreams of mechanised reasoning: Calculemus . The Dartmouth Conference in 1956 - generally considered as the birthplace of artificial intelligence - raised explicitly the hopes for the new possibilities that the advent of electronic computing machinery offered: logical statements could now be executed on a machine with all the far-reaching consequences that ultimately led to logic programming, deduction systems for mathematics and engineering, logical design and verification of computer software and hardware, deductive databases and software synthesis as well as logical techniques for analysis in the field of mechanical engineering. This volume covers some of the main subareas of computational logic and its applications.
Chapters by leading authorities in the fieldProvides a forum where philosophers and scientists interactComprehensive reference source on the history of logic"

Gert H. Muller The growth of the number of publications in almost all scientific areas, as in the area of (mathematical) logic, is taken as a sign of our scientifically minded culture, but it also has a terrifying aspect. In addition, given the rapidly growing sophistica- tion, specialization and hence subdivision of logic, researchers, students and teachers may have a hard time getting an overview of the existing literature, partic- ularly if they do not have an extensive library available in their neighbourhood: they simply do not even know what to ask for! More specifically, if someone vaguely knows that something vaguely connected with his interests exists some- where in the literature, he may not be able to find it even by searching through the publications scattered in the review journals. Answering this challenge was and is the central motivation for compiling this Bibliography. The Bibliography comprises (presently) the following six volumes (listed with the corresponding Editors): I. Classical Logic W. Rautenberg 11. Non-classical Logics W. Rautenberg 111. Model Theory H. -D. Ebbinghaus IV. Recursion Theory P. G. Hinman V. Set Theory A. R. Blass VI. ProofTheory; Constructive Mathematics J. E. Kister; D. van Dalen & A. S. Troelstra.

This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 33rd International Conference on Applications and Theory of Petri Nets and Concurrency, PETRI NETS 2012, held in Hamburg, Germany, in June 2012. The 18 regular papers and 3 tool papers presented were carefully reviewed and selected from 55 submissions. The book also contains 2 invited talks. All current issues on research and development in the area of Petri nets and related models of concurrent systems are addressed.

This book gives an introduction to theories of computability from a mathematically sophisticated point of view. It treats not only 'the' theory of computability (created by Alan Turing and others in the 1930s), but also a variety of other theories (of Boolean functions, automata and formal languages). These are addressed from the classical perspective of their generation by grammars and from the modern perspective as rational cones. The treatment of the classical theory of computable functions and relations takes the form of a tour through basic recursive function theory, starting with an axiomatic foundation and developing the essential methods in order to survey the most memorable results of the field. This authoritative account by one of the leading lights of the subject will prove exceptionally useful reading for graduate students, and researchers in theoretical computer science and mathematics.

Gert H. Muller The growth of the number of publications in almost all scientific areas,* as in the area of (mathematical) logic, is taken as a sign of our scientifically minded culture, but it also has a terrifying aspect. In addition, given the rapidly growing sophistica- tion, specialization and hence subdivision of logic, researchers, students and teachers may have a hard time getting an overview ofthe existing literature, partic- ularly if they do not have an extensive library available in their neighbourhood: they simply do not even know what to ask for! More specifically, if someone vaguely knows that something vaguely connected with his interests exists some- where in the literature, he may not be able to find it even by searching through the publications scattered in the review journals. Answering this challenge was and is the central motivation for compiling this Bibliography. The Bibliography comprises (presently) the following six volumes (listed with the corresponding Editors): I. Classical Logic W. Rautenberg II. Non-c1assical Logics W. Rautenberg IH. Model Theory H. -D. Ebbinghaus IV. Recursion Theory P. G. Hinman V. Set Theory A. R. Blass VI. ProofTheory; Constructive Mathematics J. E. Kister; D. van Dalen & A. S. Troelstra.

Kurt Goedel (1906-1978) did groundbreaking work that transformed logic and other important aspects of our understanding of mathematics, especially his proof of the incompleteness of formalized arithmetic. This book on different aspects of his work and on subjects in which his ideas have contemporary resonance includes papers from a May 2006 symposium celebrating Goedel's centennial as well as papers from a 2004 symposium. Proof theory, set theory, philosophy of mathematics, and the editing of Goedel's writings are among the topics covered. Several chapters discuss his intellectual development and his relation to predecessors and contemporaries such as Hilbert, Carnap, and Herbrand. Others consider his views on justification in set theory in light of more recent work and contemporary echoes of his incompleteness theorems and the concept of constructible sets.

This book presents methods and results from the theory of Zariski structures and discusses their applications in geometry as well as various other mathematical fields. Its logical approach helps us understand why algebraic geometry is so fundamental throughout mathematics and why the extension to noncommutative geometry, which has been forced by recent developments in quantum physics, is both natural and necessary. Beginning with a crash course in model theory, this book will suit not only model theorists but also readers with a more classical geometric background.

This book treats bounded arithmetic and propositional proof complexity from the point of view of computational complexity. The first seven chapters include the necessary logical background for the material and are suitable for a graduate course. Associated with each of many complexity classes are both a two-sorted predicate calculus theory, with induction restricted to concepts in the class, and a propositional proof system. The complexity classes range from AC0 for the weakest theory up to the polynomial hierarchy. Each bounded theorem in a theory translates into a family of (quantified) propositional tautologies with polynomial size proofs in the corresponding proof system. The theory proves the soundness of the associated proof system. The result is a uniform treatment of many systems in the literature, including Buss's theories for the polynomial hierarchy and many disparate systems for complexity classes such as AC0, AC0(m), TC0, NC1, L, NL, NC, and P.

Dealing with uncertainty, moving from ignorance to knowledge, is the focus of cognitive processes. Understanding these processes and modelling, designing, and building artificial cognitive systems have long been challenging research problems.

This book describes the theory and methodology of a new, scientifically well-founded general approach, and its realization in the form of intelligent systems applicable in disciplines ranging from social sciences, such as cognitive science and sociology, through natural sciences, such as life sciences and chemistry, to applied sciences, such as medicine, education, and engineering.

The main subject developed in the book is cognitive reasoning investigated at three levels of abstraction: conceptual, formal, and realizational. The authors offer a model of a cognizing agent for the conceptual theory of cognitive reasoning, and they also present a logically well-founded formal cognitive reasoning framework to handle the various plausible reasoning methods. They conclude with an object model of a cognitive engine.

The book is suitable for researchers, scientists, and graduate students working in the areas of artificial intelligence, mathematical logic, and philosophy.

Agents act on the basis of their beliefs and these beliefs change as they interact with other agents. In this book the authors propose and explain general logical tools for handling change. These tools include preferential reasoning, theory revision, and reasoning in inheritance systems, and the authors use these tools to examine nonmonotonic logic, deontic logic, counterfactuals, modal logic, intuitionistic logic, and temporal logic.

This book will be of benefit to researchers engaged with artificial intelligence, and in particular agents, multiagent systems and nonmonotonic logic.

Fuzzy Algorithms for Control gives an overview of the research results of a number of European research groups that are active and play a leading role in the field of fuzzy modeling and control. It contains 12 chapters divided into three parts. Chapters in the first part address the position of fuzzy systems in control engineering and in the AI community. State-of-the-art surveys on fuzzy modeling and control are presented along with a critical assessment of the role of these methodologists in control engineering. The second part is concerned with several analysis and design issues in fuzzy control systems. The analytical issues addressed include the algebraic representation of fuzzy models of different types, their approximation properties, and stability analysis of fuzzy control systems. Several design aspects are addressed, including performance specification for control systems in a fuzzy decision-making framework and complexity reduction in multivariable fuzzy systems. In the third part of the book, a number of applications of fuzzy control are presented. It is shown that fuzzy control in combination with other techniques such as fuzzy data analysis is an effective approach to the control of modern processes which present many challenges for the design of control systems. One has to cope with problems such as process nonlinearity, time-varying characteristics for incomplete process knowledge. Examples of real-world industrial applications presented in this book are a blast furnace, a lime kiln and a solar plant. Other examples of challenging problems in which fuzzy logic plays an important role and which are included in this book are mobile robotics and aircraft control. The aim of this book is to address both theoretical and practical subjects in a balanced way. It will therefore be useful for readers from the academic world and also from industry who want to apply fuzzy control in practice.

Between the two world wars, Stanislaw Lesniewski (1886-1939), created the famous and important system of foundations of mathematics that comprises three deductive theories: Protothetic, Ontology, and Mereology. His research started in 1914 with studies on the general theory of sets (later named `Mereology'). Ontology followed between 1919 and 1921, and was the next step towards an integrated system. In order to combine these two systematically he constructed Protothetic - the system of `first principles'. Together they amount to what Z. Jordan called `... most thorough, original, and philosophically significant attempt to provide a logically secure foundation for the whole of mathematics'. The volume collects many of the most significant commentaries on, and contributions to, Protothetic. A Protothetic Bibliography is included.

Lattice theory evolved as part of algebra in the nineteenth century through the work of Boole, Peirce and Schroder, and in the first half of the twentieth century through the work of Dedekind, Birkhoff, Ore, von Neumann, Mac Lane, Wilcox, Dilworth, and others. In Semimodular Lattices, Manfred Stern uses successive generalizations of distributive and modular lattices to outline the development of semimodular lattices from Boolean algebras. He focuses on the important theory of semimodularity, its many ramifications, and its applications in discrete mathematics, combinatorics, and algebra. The author surveys and analyzes Birkhoff's concept of semimodularity and the various related concepts in lattice theory, and he presents theoretical results as well as applications in discrete mathematics group theory and universal algebra. Special emphasis is given to the combinatorial aspects of finite semimodular lattices and to the connections between matroids and geometric lattices, antimatroids and locally distributive lattices. The book also deals with lattices that are "close" to semimodularity or can be combined with semimodularity, for example supersolvable, admissible, consistent, strong, and balanced lattices. Researchers in lattice theory, discrete mathematics, combinatorics, and algebra will find this book valuable.

The monograph is a 'de-construction' of Kurt Godel's Incompleteness Theorem's paradox sentence's used to prove that no formal systems of logic or mathematics can exist. The semantic valuation of the 'meaning' behind the sentences used for the paradox is challenged and revised using other words that change the very nature of the sentences used in the paradox. These 'semantic' changes result in new meanings for the sentences used for the paradoxes and forms new interpretations of examining Godel's Incompleteness Theorem as it related to David Hilbert's unifying plan for a Formalized mathematics. The monograph includes an unpublished paper on the reason 'why' behind the writing of this monograph in the Appendix section as well as a copy of my original mathematics dissertation from which this monograph is derived that is also located in the Appendix section of this monograph. The monograph includes a chapter on 'machine intelligence' and is a culmination of my thoughts on language, machines and artificial intelligence as a whole. Technical papers on the subject are included in the Appendix section of this monograph. Content: Abstract, Preface, Introduction, The Incompleteness Theorem, Hilbert's Axiomatic System for Mathematics, Of Two Words, Language and Godel's Theorem, Can Machines Think?, Conclusions, Summary, References, Notes, Appendix and Index.

The book is about Gentzen calculi for (the main systems of) modal logic. It is divided into three parts. In the first partwe introduce and discuss the main philosophical ideas related to proof theory, and we try to identify criteria for distinguishing good sequent calculi. In the second part we present the several attempts made from the 50's until today to provide modal logic with Gentzen calculi. In the third and and final part we analyse new calculi for modal logics, called tree-hypersequent calculi, which were recently introduced by the author. We show in a precise and clear way the main results that can be proved with and about them.

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Foundations of mathematics is the study of the most basic concepts and logical structure of mathematics, with an eye to the unity of human knowledge. Almost all of the problems studied in this book are motivated by an overriding foundational question: What are the appropriate axioms for mathematics? Through a series of case studies, these axioms are examined to prove particular theorems in core mathematical areas such as algebra, analysis, and topology, focusing on the language of second-order arithmetic, the weakest language rich enough to express and develop the bulk of mathematics. In many cases, if a mathematical theorem is proved from appropriately weak set existence axioms, then the axioms will be logically equivalent to the theorem. Furthermore, only a few specific set existence axioms arise repeatedly in this context, which in turn correspond to classical foundational programs. This is the theme of reverse mathematics, which dominates the first half of the book. The second part focuses on models of these and other subsystems of second-order arithmetic. Additional results are presented in an appendix.

Multiple-conclusion logic extends formal logic by allowing arguments to have a set of conclusions instead of a single one, the truth lying somewhere among the conclusions if all the premises are true. The extension opens up interesting possibilities based on the symmetry between premises and conclusions, and can also be used to throw fresh light on the conventional logic and its limitations. This is a sustained study of the subject and is certain to stimulate further research. Part I reworks the fundamental ideas of logic to take account of multiple conclusions, and investigates the connections between multiple - and single - conclusion calculi. Part II draws on graph theory to discuss the form and validity of arguments independently of particular logical systems. Part III contrasts the multiple - and the single - conclusion treatment of one and the same subject, using many-valued logic as the example; and Part IV shows how the methods of 'natural deduction' can be matched by direct proofs using multiple conclusions.

Weighted finite automata are classical nondeterministic finite automata in which the transitions carry weights. These weights may model, for example, the cost involved when executing a transition, the resources or time needed for this, or the probability or reliability of its successful execution. Weights can also be added to classical automata with infinite state sets like pushdown automata, and this extension constitutes the general concept of weighted automata. Since their introduction in the 1960s they have stimulated research in related areas of theoretical computer science, including formal language theory, algebra, logic, and discrete structures. Moreover, weighted automata and weighted context-free grammars have found application in natural-language processing, speech recognition, and digital image compression.

This book covers all the main aspects of weighted automata and formal power series methods, ranging from theory to applications. The contributors are the leading experts in their respective areas, and each chapter presents a detailed survey of the state of the art and pointers to future research. The chapters in Part I cover the foundations of the theory of weighted automata, specifically addressing semirings, power series, and fixed point theory. Part II investigates different concepts of weighted recognizability. Part III examines alternative types of weighted automata and various discrete structures other than words. Finally, Part IV deals with applications of weighted automata, including digital image compression, fuzzy languages, model checking, and natural-language processing.

Computer scientists and mathematicians will find this book an excellent survey and reference volume, and it will also be a valuable resource for students exploring this exciting research area.

The proceedings of the Los Angeles Caltech-UCLA 'Cabal Seminar' were originally published in the 1970s and 1980s. Games, Scales, and Suslin Cardinals is the first of a series of four books collecting the seminal papers from the original volumes together with extensive unpublished material, new papers on related topics, and discussion of research developments since the publication of the original volumes. Focusing on the subjects of 'Games and Scales' (Part 1) and 'Suslin Cardinals, Partition Properties, and Homogeneity' (Part 2), each of the two sections is preceded by an introductory survey putting the papers into present context. This volume will be an invaluable reference for anyone interested in higher set theory.