Controlling the mechanical, electrical, magnetic, and optical properties of materials by advanced fabrication methods (Le. ; Molecular Beam Epitaxy and Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition) has become the new paradigm in our research era. Sensors, being the most vital part of the electronic data processing and decision making machines, stand to gain the most from engineering of the properties of materials. Microfabrication technology has already contributed significantly to the batch fabrication of micro-sensors with higher over all qualities compared to their counterparts that are fabricated using other methods. Batch fabrication of micro-sensors i) results in more uniform properties of co-fabricated devices, ii) nearly eliminates the need for characterization of individual sensors, and iii) eliminates a need for laborious alignment procedures. A less obvious benefit of using microfabrication methods is the possibility of precise control over the dimensions of the sensor. This control enables engineering of some of the properties of the material which affect the sensor's operation. There are many examples of this in the literature. Optical sensors are known to have superior properties over their counterparts that use other (i. e. ; electrostatic and magnetic) means of detection. To name a few, these advantages are: i) immunity to electromagnetic interferences, ii) higher sensitivities compared to the other types of sensors, iii) simplicity of operation principles, and iv) simplicity of overall construction.

Emerging Mass Spectrometric Tools for Analysis of Polymers and Polymer Additives, by Nina Aminlashgari and Minna Hakkarainen. Analysis of Polymer Additives and Impurities by Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry and Capillary Electrophoresis/Mass Spectrometry, by Wolfgang Buchberger and Martin Stiftinger. Direct Insertion Probe Mass Spectrometry of Polymers, by Jale Hacaloglu Mass Spectrometric Characterization of Oligo- and Polysaccharides and Their Derivatives, by Petra Mischnick. Electrospray Ionization-Mass Spectrometry for Molecular Level Understanding of Polymer Degradation, by Minna Hakkarainen.

Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom; and with all thy getting, get understanding. Proverbs 4:7 In the early chapters of the book of Proverbs there is a strong emphasis on three words: knowledge, understanding, and wisdom. Perhaps we can apply these words to our philosophy behind the technology of Predictive Process Control. Knowledge is the accumulation of information provided by education as we begin to store the data in our brains that should prepare us for the challenges of the manufacturing environment. It applies to every level and every opportunity of education, formal and informal. This is simply to Know, without any requirement except a good memory, and is the basis for the following two thoughts. Understanding is the assimilation of knowledge, or the thinking process, as we begin to arrange and rearrange the data we Know for quick recall as it may be needed. This also applies to every level and opportunity of education. It is Know-Why based upon what we Know, and it requires some scepticism of oversimplified answers and a hunger for mental consistency. Wisdom is the application of both knowledge and understanding in real life enterprises. As we apply both our knowledge and understanding in those situations, all three are further enhanced by each progressive experience. This is that wonderful Know-How - to apply our education based upon Know-why, which was based upon Knowledge - which provides the confidence we need to advance in all phases of performance.

This book is a product of the understanding I developed of stress analysis applied to plastics, while at work at L. J. Broutman and Associates (UBA) and as a lecturer in the seminars on this topic co-sponsored by UBA and Society of Plastics Engineers. I believe that by its extent and level of treatment, this book would serve as an easy-to-read desktop reference for professionals, as well as a text book at the junior or senior level in undergraduate programs. The main theme of this book is what to do with computed stress. To approach the theme effectively, I have taken the "stress category ap proach" to stress analysis. Such an approach is being successfully used in the nuclear power field. In plastics, this approach helps in the prediction of long term behavior of structures. To maintain interest I have limited derivations and proofs to a minimum, and provided them, if at all, as flow charts. In this way, I believe that one can see better the connection between the variables, assumptions, and mathematics.

Electrometallurgy is a broad field but it is not a new one. It was the great Faraday in the 1830s who discovered laws covering the electrodeposition of metals and its relation to the current passed and equivalent weight of the metal undergoing depo- tion. Since that time, applications and developments of his discoveries have spread to many areas of technology. Electrowinning is the most well known, partly because it embraces the process by which aluminum is extracted from its ores. In electrorefining, the impure metal is made into anode and the pure metal dissolved therefrom is deposited on a cathode. Electroplating is exemplified by its use in the manufacture of car bumpers. Finally, in electroreforming, objects may be metallized, often with a very thin layer of the coating desired. The numerous technologies vary greatly in the degree to which they are intell- tualized. Until the work of Popov et al. , electrometallurgy has been regarded as largely empirical, an activity in which there was much art and little science. This will all change with the publication of this book. Several aspects of the background of its senior author, Konstantin Popov, make him uniquely suited to the job of intellectual- ing electrometallurgy. First, he had as his mentor the great surely the leading electrochemist in Eastern Europe since the death of Frumkin. Second, he has had ample experience with the leading electrochemical engineer in America, Ralph White.

Elucidation of the various mechanisms responsible for fracture in different materials was the general subject of the Fourth Annual Symposium on Fundamental Phenomena in the Materials Sciences held January 31 and February 1, 1966, in Boston and sponsored by the Ilikon Corporation of Natick, Massachusetts. In an analysis of the brittle-to-ductile transition in polycrystalline metals, T. L. Johnston (Ford Motor Company) placed major emphasis on factors related to the plastic resistance associated with grain boundaries and the effects of plastic anisotropy. Utilizing a generalized form of the Griffith criterion, he said it can be readily shown that several individual factors may be made reasonably quantitative and that the nature of plastic response can be predicted. Specifically, it can be shown that a critical factor relates to the length of a plastic shear zone which is constrained by an elastically loaded matrix. As this length increases, the Griffith inequality is satisfied and brittle failure occurs; however, the use of decreased grain sizes or the refine ment of dislocation or twin distribution can further tend to "homoge nize" the plastic flow and to decrease the magnitude of the shear zone. Of considerable importance in the consideration of plastic resistance is the availability of favorably oriented slip systems in aa un sheared crystallite."

Proceedings of a Summer School at Michigan State University held in East Lansing, Michigan, July 17-19, 1994

With contributions by: R.H. Boyd; B.G. Sumpter, D.W. Noid, G.L. Liang, B. Wunderlich; M.D. Ediger, D.B. Adolf; R.-J. Roe; I. Bahar, B. Erman, L. Monnerie; A.A. Gusev, F. Muller-Plathe, W.F. van Gunsteren, U.W. Suter; L.R. Dodd, D.N. Theodorou; E. Leontidis, J.J. de Pablo, M. Laso, U.W. Suter; K.S. Schweizer."

In the future, our energy systems will need to be renewable and sustainable, efficient and cost-effective, convenient and safe. Hydrogen has been proposed as the perfect fuel for this future energy system. The availability of a reliable and cost-effective supply, safe and efficient storage, and convenient end use of hydrogen will be essential for a transition to a Hydrogen Economy. Research is being conducted throughout the world for the development of safe, cost-effective hydrogen production, storage, and end-use technologies that support and foster this transition. This book is a collection of important research and analysis papers on hydrogen production, storage, and end-use technologies that were presented at the American Chemical Society National Meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, in August 1999.

Lead-based paint has become a national issue and will continue to be a hi- priority focus ofnational, state, and local agencies until there is no lead-based paint in the United States. Lead-based paint has become a tremendous health hazard for people and animals. Lead-based paint has been in widespread use throughout Europe and the United States. Lead has been known to be a health hazard since the time ofPliny the Elder (A. D. 23-79), but it was deemed that the advantages of lead in paint outweighed the health hazards. There has been a change in outlook, and in 1973 the U. S. Congress banned all lead paint from residential structures. A voluminous number of law suits have been initiated since, and continue to be litigated with the purpose of determining the parties responsible for the lead poisoning of children and others and to exact the indemnities. Lead-based paint is still authorized for use on bridges and nonresidential structures, and thousands of city, state, military, and federal government housing projects still contain lead-based paint. This paint must be removed if these dwellings are to be safe living quarters, especially for children. Aba- ment techniques continue to be evaluated; some have been used successfully. Lead-based paint abatement will continue into the next century, and it is hoped that this comprehensive volume will serve as a guide for those seriously interested in this important subject.

Proceedings of the International School of Quantum Electronics 27th course on Bose Einstein Condensates and Atom Lasers, October 19-24, 1999, Erice, Italy. Since the experimental demonstration of Bose Einstein Condensation in dilute atomic gases there has been an explosion of interest in the properties of this novel macroscopic quantum system. The book covers the methods used to produce these new samples of coherent atoms, their manipulation and the study of their properties. Emphasis is given to the anticipated development of new types of sources, which more and more resemble traditional types of lasers. Because of recent new applications and increasing demand for lasers, sensors and associated instrumentation, the chapters also cover current developments in the basic techniques, materials and applications in the field of the generation of coherent atoms.

Stereology is the science that relates three-dimensional structure to the two-dimensional images that can be measured. The most common field of application is in microscopy, both of man-made materials (metals, ceramics, composites, etc.) and of biological tissue samples. This book covers the applications and terminology of both fields. Recent emphasis in stereology is concerned with sampling strategies to avoid bias due to directionality and non-uniformity, and these methods are fully covered. So are the classic techniques that measure size distributions, surface curvature, etc., which are widely useful but not discussed in other recent texts. Finally, most stereology is taught as manual procedures using counting and grids, but this text also covers the use of modern desktop computers for image analysis and processing to obtain and interpret the stereological data.

This monograph describes and discusses the properties of heterogeneous materials, including conductivity, elastic moduli, and dielectrical constant. The book outlines typical experimental methods, and compares the experimental data and the theoretical predictions. This multidisciplinary book will appeal to applied physicists, materials scientists, chemical and mechanical engineers, chemists, and applied mathematicians.

The fluorine atom, by virtue of its electronegativity, size, and bond strength with carbon, can be used to create compounds with remarkable properties. Small molecules containing fluorine have many positive impacts on everyday life of which blood substitutes, pharmaceuticals, and surface modifiers are only a few examples. Fluoropolymers, too, while traditionally associated with extreme hi- performance applications have found their way into our homes, our clothing, and even our language. A recent American president was often likened to the tribology of PTFE. Since the serendipitous discovery of Teflon at the Dupont Jackson Laboratory in 1938, fluoropolymers have grown steadily in technological and marketplace importance. New synthetic fluorine chemistry, new processes, and new apprec- tion of the mechanisms by which fluorine imparts exceptional properties all contribute to accelerating growth in fluoropolymers. There are many stories of harrowing close calls in the fluorine chemistry lab, especially from the early years, and synthetic challenges at times remain daunting. But, fortunately, modern techniques and facilities have enabled significant strides toward taming both the hazards and synthetic uncertainties. In contrast to past environmental problems associated with fluorocarbon refrigerants, the exceptional properties of fluorine in polymers have great environmental value. Some fluoropolymers are enabling green technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells for automobiles and oxygen-selective membranes for cleaner diesel combustion.

To the biochemist, water is, of course, the only solvent worthy of consideration, because natural macromolecules exhibit their remarkable conformational properties only in aqueous media. Probably because of these remarkable properties, biochemists do not tend to regard proteins, nucleotides and polysaccharides as polymers in the way that real polymer scientists regard methyl methacrylate and polyethylene. The laws of polymer statistics hardly apply to native biopolymers. Between these two powerful camps, lies the No-man's land of water soluble synthetic polymers: here, we must also include natural polymers which have been chemically modified. The scientific literature of these compounds is characterized by a large number of patents, which is usually a sign of little basic understanding, of 'know-how' rather than of 'know-why'. Many of the physical properties of such aqueous solutions are intriguing: the polymer may be completely miscible with water, and yet water is a 'poor' solvent, in terms of polymer parlance. ~kiny of the polymers form thermorever sible gels on heating or cooling. The phenomena of exothermic mixing and salting-in are common features of such systems: neither can be fully explained by the available theories. Finally, the eccentric behaviour of polyelectrolytes is well documented. Despite the lack of a sound physico-chemical foundation there is a general awareness of the importance of water soluble vinyl, acrylic, polyether, starch and cellulose derivatives, as witnessed again by ~he vast patent literature.

Stochastic geometry, based on current developments in geometry, probability and measure theory, makes possible modeling of two- and three-dimensional random objects with interactions as they appear in the microstructure of materials, biological tissues, macroscopically in soil, geological sediments etc. In combination with spatial statistics it is used for the solution of practical problems such as the description of spatial arrangements and the estimation of object characteristics. A related field is stereology, which makes possible inference on the structures, based on lower-dimensional observations. Unfolding problems for particle systems and extremes of particle characteristics are studied. The reader can learn about current developments in stochastic geometry with mathematical rigor on one hand and find applications to real microstructure analysis in natural and material sciences on the other hand.

During the Koln meeting (August 28-31, 1984), Irdia was chosen as the venue for the next International Conference on Valence Fluctuations. lhis was in recognition ard appreciation of the work done, both experimental ard theoretical, by the Irdian scientists in this area during the last decade. We decided to hold this Conference in the month of January, 1987 at Bangalore. lhe subject of Valence Fluctuations has kept itself alive ard active as it has provided many shocks ard suprises particularly among the Ce- ard U-based intermetallies. lhe richness of many interesting physical phenomena occurring in mixed valent materials, the flexibility of modifying their physical properties (by alloying, for example) ard the possibility of synthesizing a wide variety of new such materials seem to be the key factors in this regard. Barely six months before this Conference, an International Conference on Anomalous Rare Earths and Actinides (ICAREA) had been held at Grenoble (July, 1986) which also focussed on mixed valence ard heavy fermion phenomena. In spite of this, the response to this' Conference was very enthusiastic and encouraging. Many interesting ard important results were presented at this Conference which have been included in this volume.

The field of nonlinear optics, which has undergone a very rapid development since the discovery of lasers in the early sixties, continues to be an active and rapidly developing - search area. The interest is mainly due to the potential applications of nonlinear optics: - rectly in telecommunications for high rate data transmission, image processing and recognition or indirectly from the possibility of obtaining large wavelength range tuneable lasers for applications in industry, medicine, biology, data storage and retrieval, etc. New phenomena and materials continue to appear regularly, renewing the field. This has proven to be especially true over the last five years. New materials such as organics have been developed with very large second- and third-order nonlinear optical responses. Imp- tant developments in the areas of photorefractivity, all optical phenomena, frequency conv- sion and electro-optics have been observed. In parallel, a number of new phenomena have been reported, some of them challenging the previously held concepts. For example, solitons based on second-order nonlinearities have been observed in photorefractive materials and frequency doubling crystals, destroying the perception that third order nonlinearities are - quired for their generation and propagation. New ways of creating and manipulating nonl- ear optical materials have been developed. An example is the creation of highly nonlinear (second-order active) polymers by static electric field, photo-assisted or all-optical poling. Nonlinear optics involves, by definition, the product of electromagnetic fields. As a con- quence, it leads to the beam control.

For several years, core level spectroscopies and other, c\osely related, electron spectroscopies have provided very useful information about the atomic composition, the geometric structure, and the electronic structure of condensed matter. Recently, these spectroscopies have also been used for the study of magnetic properties; such studies have a great potential to extend our knowledge and understanding of magnetic systems. This volume collects the lectures presented at the NATO Advanced Study Institute on "Core Level Spectroscopies for Magnetic Phenomena: Theory and Experiment" held at the Ettore Majorana Centre, Erice, Sicily, on 15 to 26 May 1994. The topics considered at the ASI covered a wide range of subjects involving the use of core-level and related spectroscopies to study magnetic phenomena. There are a large and growing number of applications of these spectroscopies to the study of magnetic materials; an important objective of the ASI was to stimulate further growth. The topics covered at the ASI can be placed into three general groups: 1) fundamental principles of core level spectroscopies; 2) basic aspects of magnetic phenomena; and, 3) the combination of the two previous topics embodied in applications of the spectroscopies to magnetism. In all three groups, theoretical interpretations as weH as experimental measurements were presented, often both of these aspects were covered in a single lecture or series oflectures. The theoretical treatments ofthe spectroscopies as weH as of the magnetic phenomena help to establish a framework for understanding many of the experimental measurements on magnetic materials.

Advances in nanoscale science show that the properties of many materials are dominated by internal structures. In molecular cases, such as window glass and proteins, these internal structures obviously have a network character. However, in many partly disordered electronic materials, almost all attempts at understanding are based on traditional continuum models. This workshop focuses first on the phase diagrams and phase transitions of materials known to be composed of molecular networks. These phase properties characteristically contain remarkable features, such as intermediate phases that lead to reversibility windows in glass transitions as functions of composition. These features arise as a result of self-organization of the internal structures of the intermediate phases. In the protein case, this self-organization is the basis for protein folding. The second focus is on partly disordered electronic materials whose phase properties exhibit the same remarkable features. In fact, the phenomenon of High Temperature Superconductivity, discovered by Bednorz and Mueller in 1986, and now the subject of 75,000 research papers, also arises from such an intermediate phase. More recently discovered electronic phenomena, such as giant magnetoresistance, also are made possible only by the existence of such special phases. This book gives an overview of the methods and results obtained so far by studying the characteristics and properties of nanoscale self-organized networks. It demonstrates the universality of the network approach over a range of disciplines, from protein folding to the newest electronic materials.

The need for alternate energy sources has led to the develop ment of prototype fusion and MHD reactors. Both possible energy systems in current designs usually require the use of magnetic fields for plasma confinement and concentration. For the creation and maintenance of large 5 to 15 tesla magnetic fields, supercon ducting magnets appear more economical. But the high magnetic fields create large forces, and the complexities of the conceptual reactors create severe space restrictions. The combination of re quirements, plus the desire to keep construction costs at a mini mum, has created a need for stronger structural alloys for service at liquid helium temperature (4 K). The complexity of the required structures requires that these alloys be weldable. Furthermore, since the plasma is influenced by magnetic fields and since magnet ic forces from the use of ferromagnetic materials in many configur ations may be additive, the best structural alloy for most applica tions should be nonmagnetic. These requirements have led to consideration of higher strength austenitic steels. Strength increases at low temperatures are achieved by the addition of nitrogen. The stability of the austenitic structure is retained by adding manganese instead of nickel, which is more expensive. Research to develop these higher strength austenitic steels is in process, primarily in Japan and the United States."

This Proceedings is a collection of papers presented at the Third Annual Conference on Superconductivity and Applications organized by the New York State Institute on Superconductivity. This year the Conference was held at the Buffalo Hilton Hotel on September 19- 21, 1989, with previous meetings on September 28-29,1987, and April 18-20, 1988. As in previous years, this meeting was highly successful, with an attendance of over three hundred researchers participating in lively scientific exchanges and discussions. The high quality of the talks is evident in this Proceedings. The field of high temperature superconductivity has matured considerably since its early days of media frenzy and rapid new discoveries. However, the enthusiasm and pace of research have not slowed down. A much better picture of the nature of high temperature superconductivity, the properties of these new materials and where they may find their eventual use has emerged. Processing techniques, especially thin film deposition, have been perfected nearly to the point of allowing commercial applications. We expect continued phenomenal growth of the field of high temperature superconductivity, both in terms of research and applications for many years to come.

The liquid crystalline state may be identified as a distinct and unique state of matter which is characterised by properties which resembles those of both solids and liquids. It was first recognised in the middle of the last century through the study of nerve myelin and derivatives of cholesterol. The research in the area really gathered momentum, however, when as a result of the pioneering work of Gray in the early 1970's organic compounds showing liquid crystalline properties were shown to be suitable to form the basis of display devices in the electronic products. The study of liquid crystals is truly multidisciplinary and has attached the attention of physicists, biologists, chemists, mathematicians and electronics engineers. It is therefore impossible to cover all these aspects fully in two small volumes and therefore it was decided in view of the overall title of the series to concentrate on the structural and bonding aspects of the subject. The Chapters presented in these two volumes have been organised to cover the following fundamental aspects of the subject. The calculation of the structures of liquid crystals, an account of their dynamical properties and a discussion of computer simulations of liquid crystalline phases formed by Gay Berne mesogens. The relationships between molecular conformation and packing are analysed in some detail. The crystal structures of liquid crystal mesogens and the importance of their X ray scattering properties for characterisational purposes are discussed.