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Books > Humanities > Archaeology > Archaeology by period / region > Middle & Near Eastern archaeology
Everyone who investigates pre-modern concepts of nature cannot
avoid a critical reflection on the ancient understandings of it.
Here, "nature" is understood in the sense of a seemingly untouched
space, largely independent of human culture. While this concept of
"nature" is prevalent in modern times, the reconstruction of
ancient ideas is difficult in that concepts of nature, if at all
present, emphasize other aspects. For example, the Greek term in
pre-Hellenistic times defines the nature of a thing rather than an
untouched environment. A word for "nature" in this sense has not
been handed down to us in the remaining texts of the Ancient Near
East and Classical Antiquity. Nevertheless, such concepts can
certainly be reconstructed from descriptions of nature to be found
in literature and the representations of natural elements in art.
The present volume aims at identifying these concepts of nature in
texts as well as in archaeological remains of the Ancient Near
Eastern and the Greek culture from the Archaic to the Hellenistic
period. Contributions from the fields of archaeology and philology
are juxtaposed for each time period in chronological order. This
arrangement provides a good overview of the concepts of nature
prevailing throughout different period and cultures. | Der Begriff
"Natur" wird in modernen, mitteleuropaischen Gesellschaften meist
im Sinne eines vermeintlich unberuhrten Raumes verstanden, der
weitgehend unbeeinflusst von menschlicher Kultur ist. Fur
vormoderne Kulturen lassen sich solche Vorstellungen bzw. Konzepte
sehr viel schwieriger nachweisen, da beispielsweise ein Wort fur
"Natur" mit der eben genannten Bedeutung in den erhaltenen Texten
des Alten Orients und der griechischen Antike so nicht uberliefert
zu sein scheint. Gleichwohl werden durchaus Naturelemente in der
antiken Literatur, der Flachenkunst sowie in antiken Monumenten
beschrieben bzw. abgebildet sowie als integrative Bestandteile
genutzt und funktionalisiert. Daraus lassen sich Konzepte von
"Natur" herausarbeiten und rekonstruieren. Der vorliegende Band
moechte solche "Naturkonzepte" in Texten, Artefakten und Denkmalern
des Alten Orients und des griechischen Kulturraumes von der Archaik
bis in den Hellenismus identifizieren und einen UEberblick uber die
jeweils in einem bestimmten Zeit- und Kulturraum vorherrschenden
Vorstellungen sowie deren diachrone Entwicklung geben.
In this book the much-debated problem of political organization in
Mycenaean Greece (ca. 1400-1200 BC) is analysed and contextualised
through the prism of archaeology and contemporary textual (Linear
B, Egyptian and Hittite) evidence. From the early 14th century BC
onwards, Hittite texts refer to a land Ahhiya(wa). The exact
geographic position of this land has been the focus of academic
debate for more than a century, but most specialists nowadays agree
that it must have been a Hittite designation for a part, or all of,
the Mycenaean world. On at least two occasions, the ruler of
Ahhiyawa is designated as LUGAL.GAL –‘Great King’-; a title
that was normally reserved for a select group of kings (such as the
kings of Egypt, Assyria, Mitanni, Babylon and Hatti itself). The
Hittite attribution of this title thus seems to signify the
Ahhiyawan King’s supra-regional importance: it indicates his
power over other, ‘lesser’ kings, and suggests that his
relation to these vassals must have been comparable to the
relations between the Hittite King and his own vassal rulers. The
apparent Hittite perception of such an important ruler in the
Mycenaean world is, however, completely at odds with the prevailing
view of the Mycenaean world as a patchwork of independent states,
all of which were ruled by a local ‘wanax’ -King. The papers in
this volume address this apparent dichotomy and discuss various
interpretations of the available evidence, and contextualise the
role of the ruler in the Mycenaean world through comparisons with
the contemporary Near East.
This volume contains 23 articles written by 26 authors in order to
express the extent of their respect and friendship for Christine
Kepinski. The topics addressed in their papers reflect the
scientific work of Christine Kepinski, who always promoted
interdisciplinary approaches and developed multi-scale analysis
from the object itself to regional study. Several papers are
directly connected to fieldwork she conducted in Iraq and in
Turkey: Haradum and the Middle Euphrates area, Tilbeshar and
Kunara. Others are devoted to material study, notably glyptic,
seals and sealing practices. Others evoke Syria: she never directed
archaeological excavation there but she always integrated Syria in
her studies. Finally, some are inspired by Christine Kepinski's
interest for urban life. The chronological time span of the book as
well as the various specialisations of the authors clearly show the
great value of her scientific background guided by her taste for
the Orient.
Syria has been a major crossroads of civilizations in the ancient
Near East since the dawn of human kind. Until the current crisis
began in 2011, Syria was one of the foremost pioneers in the
investigation of past human knowledge, diversity, and identity.
However, due to the ongoing war, archaeological excavations came to
an abrupt halt. Since then, there have been countless alarming
reports of damage or destruction inflicted on archaeological,
historical, and museum sites. The International Syrian Congress on
Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (ISCACH), held December 3-5, 2015
in Beirut, Lebanon, was designed to bring together international
scholars who have directed or participated in archaeological
expeditions in Syria, and colleagues from Syria. By doing so, not
only could the results of years of archaeological investigations
and cultural heritage management in Syria be shared and discussed,
but also a spirit of friendship and collaboration could be fostered
and strengthened during this turbulent period. The Congress
focussed on the scientific aspects of each explored site and region
allowing researchers to examine in detail each heritage site, its
characteristics and identity. Archaeological Explorations in Syria
2000-2011: Proceedings of ISCACH-Beirut 2015 consists of two parts.
The first part presents the results of archaeological
investigations conducted between 2000 and 2010. The second part
comprises abstracts of papers and posters presented during the
Congress. It is hoped that this book will represent an important
contribution to the scientific dialogue between international and
Syrian scholars, and will appeal to the general public interested
in the culture and history of Syria.
The prehistoric site of Tell Sabi Abyad lies in the valley of the
Balikh River, a tributary of the Euphrates in northern Syria.
Between 2001 and 2008 excavations focused on the north-western,
western and southwestern slopes of the main mound (Operations III,
IV and V). Relentlessly Plain presents the results of detailed
investigations into the 7th millennium BC ceramic assemblages
recovered from those excavations by an interdisciplinary group of
scholars. The 7th millennium BC was an era of profound cultural
transformations in the ancient Near East. This began with the
sustained adoption of pottery c. 7000 cal BC, followed by the slow
advance of the new craft as pottery containers became increasingly
common. Important social, economic and ritual activities became
increasingly dependent on pottery containers. Over the course of
the millennium, prehistoric communities began to cook food and
drink, store surpluses, and send symbolic messages via the medium
of pottery vessels. Tell Sabi Abyad offers a unique vantage point
from which to study these innovations. Supported by a strong
program of radiocarbon dating, extensive excavations have revealed
a lengthy, continuous sequence of prehistoric occupation from the
start of the Late Neolithic into the Early Halaf period. Pottery
changed dramatically in the course of this long trajectory. Whereas
in the initial stages pottery containers were rare, at the end of
the sequence they represented a mass-produced craft. Initially
ceramic containers were visually conspicuous, occasionally
decorated, but masses of relentlessly plain pottery characterize
subsequent stages. The book combines detailed discussion of themes
relevant to the study of early ceramics in the ancient Near East
with extensive analyses of each of the individual wares currently
distinguished at the site. Separate chapters offer perspectives on
the archaeometry, the depositional context, early repairs, food
residues, provenance and associated human burials.
The Czech Institute of Egyptology of the Charles University in
Prague has since the start of the third millennium established the
tradition of organising on a regular basis a platform for scholars,
active in the pyramid fields and the cemeteries of the Memphite
region (Abusir, Saqqara, Dahshur and Giza in particular), to meet,
exchange information and establish further cooperation. The present
volume, containing 43 contributions by 53 scholars, is the result
of the already fourth "Abusir and Saqqara" conference held in June
2015. The volume reflects the widespread, often multidisciplinary
interest of many researchers into a wide variety of different
topics related to the Memphite necropoleis. Recurring topics of the
studies include a focus on archaeology, the theory of artefacts,
iconographic and art historian studies, and the research of largely
unpublished archival materials. An overwhelming number of
contributions (31) is dedicated to various aspects of Old Kingdom
archaeology and most present specific aspects linked with
archaeological excavations, both past and present.
This year, 2017, marks 70 years since the discovery of the famous
Dead Sea Scrolls at Khirbet Qumran by the Dead Sea in 1947. The
Dead Sea Scrolls are one of the most well-known archaeological
discoveries of the 20th century. This book addresses the
proto-history and the roots of the Qumran community and of the Dead
Sea Scrolls in the light of contemporary scholarship in Alexandria,
Egypt. Alexandria, as the centre for Hellenistic Jews and the
location of the Library of Alexandria, forms a key to understanding
the theme of the book. The relationship of this context to the
thoughts of the Essenes, the Jewish philosopher Philo of
Alexandria, the Jewish Therapeutae of Egypt living in the
neighbourhood of Alexandria and the Pythagoreans are especially
studied in this work. Historical sources (both Jewish and Classical
authors) and archaeological evidence are taken into account in the
wider Graeco-Roman context. The connection between the Jewish
Therapeutae in the Lake Mareotis region and the Palestinian Essenes
is explained by the 'Jewish Pythagoras' based on the idea that the
movements share the same philosophical tradition based on Judaism
and Pythagoreanism. The prototypes of the Dead Sea Scrolls are
explained in their Egyptian context, in association with the
Library of Alexandria, the Egyptian temple manuals, and the
formation of libraries in the Hellenistic period including that of
Qumran.
'Well, as for Nineveh, skipper, it was wiped out long ago. There's
not a trace of it left, and one can't even guess where it was'
(Lucian, 2nd century AD). Nineveh, the once-flourishing capital of
the Assyrian Empire, has fascinated writers, travellers and
historians alike since its complete annihilation by allied forces
in 612 BC. It was said to have been a great and populous city with
90-km walls, stunning palaces and colossal statues of pure gold.
Since 1842 archaeologists have been investigating the ruins of
Nineveh, which are located on the eastern banks of the river
Tigris, near the modern Iraqi city of Mosul. The hundreds of
thousands of objects that have been collected tell an intriguing
story of life and death in a remarkable Mesopotamian city. The
edited volume Nineveh, the Great City contains more than 65
articles by international specialists, providing the reader with a
detailed and thorough study of the site of Nineveh. It describes
the history of the city, the excavations and the dispersed material
culture that can today be appreciated in more than 100 museums and
institutes around the world. Special attention is paid to the
endangered heritage of Nineveh, which recently faced destruction
for the second time in its history. This lavishly illustrated
volume is intended to appeal to readers interested in culture and
heritage, as well as to students and professional academics.
Papyri from Karanis: The Granary C123 is the twenty- first volume
of University of Michigan papyri and the fourth devoted to texts
from the University's excavations at Karanis. The volume offers a
contextualized edition of thirty-seven documents found in a single
structure, a large granary (C123) originally built in the first
century CE, in addition to an analysis of the archaeology and
history of the structure. The documents are presented with an
introduction, transcription of the original Greek or Latin,
translation, commentary, and images. A unique community prayer to
the emperor and gods (827) is the volume's most notable
contribution. The other papyri are a mix of private and public
documents (petitions, declarations, letters, lists, etc.) that date
from between the first century BCE and the fourth century CE. The
typological and chronological mix of texts shows that they do not
form an undisturbed archive but were rather a dump of wastepaper
and other household objects. Michigan's excavated papyri are here
presented for the first time on the basis of their archaeological
find spot rather than being organized according to content. The
volume's introduction provides a possible model for analyzing
legacy data from the Karanis excavations stored at the University
of Michigan. The book will be of interest to papyrologists, ancient
historians, and archaeologists of Greco- Roman Egypt.
The Delta Survey Workshop comprises the proceedings of two
conferences organised by the Delta Survey Project and held in
Alexandria in 2017 and Mansoura in 2019. The 23 papers contain the
results of the latest fieldwork in the Nile Delta and Sinai, from
survey work that records and documents unknown and new sites such
as Kom Dabaa and Mutubis or sites in Kafr Dawar and Wadi Tumilat,
to excavation reports from established projects at major sites such
as Qantir, Bubastis, Tell Heboua, Tell el-Maskhuta, Akademia,
Taposiris Magna and Tell Fara'in (Buto). New work is also reported
from Tell Tebilla, urban funerary sites in Alexandria, and Arab el
Hisn (Heliopolis). There are also thematically focussed papers
covering ovens recorded in archaeological and ethnological
fieldwork, tower houses, amphorae and pottery and human remains. In
addition, there are mapping and remote sensing reports from Mariut
and the Buto area, rock inscriptions in Sinai and a catalogue
project of material in the St Mark antiquities collection in
Alexandria.
One of the greatest historians of the twentieth century, Arnaldo
Momigliano (1908-1987) is known for his path-breaking studies of
ancient Greek and Roman history. The encyclopedic knowledge of the
ancient world that Momigliano brought to his work, however, enabled
him to make connections between ancient history and the subsequent
study of that history. His sweeping vision stretched from antiquity
to the present day. In Momigliano and Antiquarianism, Peter N.
Miller brings together an international and interdisciplinary group
of scholars to provide the first serious study of Momigliano's
history of historical scholarship. At its core, this collection is
devoted to one of Momigliano's most celebrated subjects the history
of antiquarianism, and one of his most audacious claims, that the
decay of early modern antiquarianism actually gave birth to the
modern cultural sciences - history, sociology, anthropology, art
history, archaeology, and history of religion. Filling a gap in the
scholarship, this erudite collection will prove fascinating to
teachers and students of classics, history, and the human sciences.
The Living Inca Town presents a rich case study of tourism in
Ollantaytambo, a rapidly developing destination in the southern
Peruvian Andes and the starting point for many popular treks to
Machu Picchu. Tourism is generally welcomed in Ollantaytambo, as it
provides a steady stream of work for local businesses, particularly
those run by women. However, the obvious material inequalities
between locals and tourists affect many interactions and have
contributed to conflict and aggression throughout the tourist
zones. Based on a number of research visits over the course of
fifteen years, The Living Inca Town examines the experiences and
interactions of locals, visitors, and tourism brokers. The book
makes room for unique perspectives and uses innovative visual
methods, including photovoice images and pen and ink drawings, to
represent different viewpoints of day-to-day tourist encounters.
The Living Inca Town vividly illustrates how tourism can perpetuate
gendered and global inequalities, while also exploring new avenues
to challenge and renegotiate these roles.
The walled town of Baraqish in interior Yemen - ancient Yathill of
the Sabaeans and Minaeans - was for Alessandro de Maigret
(1943-2011) 'one of the archaeological marvels not just of Yemen,
but of the entire Near East'. Established as an oasis settlement in
the semi-desert depression of the Jawf, it became in the 1st
millennium BCE a thriving caravan station on the 'incense' route
and a famed place of worship, controlled by rich rulers and
merchants. Topography and trade made it a crucible of South Arabian
and foreign traditions, and on several occasions, it was a border
town disputed between rival powers. A sustained archaeological
effort to investigate the site and area began in 1986 by the
Italian Archaeological Mission, led by de Maigret, and developed in
two phases. In 1989-1992 the temple of the patron god was
excavated, while between 2003-2007 a range of new excavations were
undertaken, including a second temple, a sounding, a dissection of
the tell's edge outside the Minaean wall, and a cemetery. Presented
across two volumes, Volume 1: Excavations of Temple B and related
research and restoration is particularly devoted to the temple of
god 'Athtar dhu-Qabd (Temple B), dated to the second half of the
1st millennium BCE. Six chapters fully illustrate its excavation,
architecture, restoration, findings, inscriptions, and dating. The
contribution of this work and monument to regional history
transcends its local significance. The report is framed by ten
chapters detailing the historiography of research on Baraqish, the
initial surveys carried out in 1986-1987, the architecture and
restoration of Temple A together with the extramural excavation at
the adjacent curtain wall, the cultic equipment, and radiocarbon
datings. The nine contributors are leading scholars in the above
fields and include recognized experts in South Arabian archaeology.
The core of Volume 2: Extramural excavations in Area C and overview
studies is a final report on Area C, an exploratory dissection
through the western edge of the Baraqish mound outside the curtain
wall, and a unique operation for Yemen until now. Eight chapters
detail the excavation, stratigraphy, and geoarchaeology (from about
800 BCE to the present), in addition to radiocarbon chronology,
cultural finds, animal and plant remains, economy, major historical
events, and unique evidence for trade. Four further chapters offer
a glimpse of settlement archaeology for Sabaean Yathill and the
survey of a religious centre to the west, together with a first
typology of Minaean pottery and an epigraphic and
political-historical overview for Baraqish and the Jawf. The
contributors are recognized experts in South Arabian archaeology.
This book contains a selection of nineteen articles published by
K.R. Veenhof, focusing on his main field of study: law and trade in
the Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian society of the early second
millennium B.C. They were originally published in journals,
conference proceedings and collective volumes over the past fifty
years. Their reissue here is motivated by their lasting value and
their fundamental importance to the study of these subjects. It
includes both "broad" articles, which give an introduction to or an
overview of a specific subject, e.g. Old Assyrian trade and the
practice of justice in Babylonia in the early second millennium
B.C., and "narrow" ones that give an in-depth study of a single
issue or a single text, such as a problematic paragraph of
Hammurabi's law code or the meaning of the noun isurtum. The first
two articles provide a general introduction to the subject; the
next nine focus on Old Assyrian society, and the final eight
concern Old Babylonian. The inclusion of "broad" and "narrow"
articles makes this publication of interest both to the
well-informed general reader interested in the Ancient Near East
and to the specialist working on Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian
society. Prof. dr. Klaas R. Veenhof (1935) was a teacher at the
Catholic University of Nijmegen, professor at the Free University
of Amsterdam and from 1982 until his retirement in 2000 professor
at the University of Leiden. Key publications are his dissertation
"Aspects of Old Assyrian Trade and its Terminology" (1972), "The
Old Assyrian list of year eponyms from Karum Kanish and its
chronological implications" (2003), and several editions of Old
Assyrian texts, especially "Altassyrische Tontafeln aus Kultepe"
(1992) and Kultepe Tabletleri 5 and 8 (2005 and 2010).
The two tombs dealt with in this book were discovered in 2007 and
2010 by the Leiden Expedition in the New Kingdom necropolis of
Saqqara. Both date to the transition period between the reign of
the heretic Pharaoh Akhenaten and the return to orthodoxy under his
successor Tutankhamun. They are valuable additions to the growing
corpus of funerary architecture from the Memphite cemeteries, yet
they are quite different. Ptahemwia was a royal butler, presumably
in the Memphite palace. The wall-reliefs and inscriptions of his
tomb illustrate aspects of his professional life. Yet the career of
the tomb-owner preserves some mysteries, such as the assumed change
of his name, his potential foreign origins, and the reason why his
tomb could not be finished according to plan. Sethnakht is an even
more elusive person. This simple scribe of the temple of Ptah can
hardly have been the main owner of the tomb next to Ptahemwia's,
which was started in the same lavish style and then remained
undecorated. There are reasons to assume that Sethnakht was just
one of the relatives of the owner, who - like Ptahemwia - seems to
have suffered from the political vicissitudes of the period. This
publication presents the results of the recent excavations, with an
introduction on the biographical data of the tomb owners followed
by detailed discussions of the tomb architecture and wall
decorations, as well as the objects, pottery, and skeletal material
found in the area. Thus it is aimed at an audience of professional
readers with an interest in funerary archaeology.
From ca. 1600 – 1000 BC, builders across southern Greece crafted
thousands of rock-cut chamber tombs similar to earlier and
contemporary ‘beehive’ tholos tombs. Both tomb styles were
designed with multiple uses in mind, filling with the remains of
funerals forgotten over generations of reuse. In rare cases, the
tombs were used once or seemingly not at all, cleaned thoroughly or
sealed and abandoned entirely. Rather than focus on the missing or
muddled record of funeral and post-funeral activities, this book
re-examines Mycenaean tomb architecture and the decisions that
guided it. From minimalistic to monumental, builders designed tombs
with forethought to how commissioners and witnesses would react and
remember them. Patterns suggest that memories of what tombs should
look like heavily influenced new construction toward recurring
shapes and appropriate scales. The wider debates over cost from
‘architectural energetics’ and perception in Aegean mortuary
behaviour are thus revisited. Both can find common purpose in
labour measured through a relative index and collective memory –
how labourers and patrons saw their work. That metric for
comparison lies within a median standard: in this instance, tombs
expressed in terms of correlative shape and simple labour
investment of the earth and rock moved to create them. This was
accomplished here through photogrammetric modelling of 94 multi-use
tombs in Achaea and Attica, verifying a cost-effective alternative
for local authorities warding off information loss through site
destruction from looting and earthquakes. Since most labour models
suggest the tombs were not burdensome, commissioners held
extravagant building in check by weighing the social risks and
rewards of standing out from the crowd.
From ca. 1600 – 1000 BC, builders across southern Greece crafted
thousands of rock-cut chamber tombs similar to earlier and
contemporary 'beehive' tholos tombs. Rather than focus on the
missing or muddled record of funeral and post-funeral activities,
this book re-examines Mycenaean tomb architecture and the decisions
that guided it by examining patterns and correlations in tomb
design using photogrammetric modelling of 94 multi-use tombs in
Achaea and Attica.
Khirbat Faris: Rural Settlement, Continuity and Change in Southern
Jordan. The Nabatean to Modern Periods (1st century BC - 20th
century AD) is the first of three volumes which chart the temporal,
and spatial, occupational fluctuations at the site of Khirbat Faris
in Southern Jordan and the stories of the communities that lived
there. The detailed final excavation report follows the site and
its environs throughout their many phases of use and occupation,
from the 13th century BC to the present day. It provides a firm
foundation for the succeeding discussions on key questions
affecting our picture of the Nabatean, Late Antique and Islamic
Levant. This well-illustrated book is essential reading for
archaeologists, architectural historians, historical geographers,
ethnographers: for anyone trying to understand the impact of varied
environmental, social and economic forces upon settlement; for
anyone seeking to unravel ways in which the use of ethnographic and
historical data, together with archaeology and the types of
excavation and analysis employed, can best respond to questions
about rural settlement; for anyone eager to unpick the relationship
between 'The Desert' and 'The Sown', between nomad and farmer,
between tribe and state, between Christianity and Islam.
This book contains a selection of nineteen articles published by
K.R. Veenhof, focusing on his main field of study: law and trade in
the Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian society of the early second
millennium B.C. They were originally published in journals,
conference proceedings and collective volumes over the past fifty
years. Their reissue here is motivated by their lasting value and
their fundamental importance to the study of these subjects. It
includes both "broad" articles, which give an introduction to or an
overview of a specific subject, e.g. Old Assyrian trade and the
practice of justice in Babylonia in the early second millennium
B.C., and "narrow" ones that give an in-depth study of a single
issue or a single text, such as a problematic paragraph of
Hammurabi's law code or the meaning of the noun isurtum. The first
two articles provide a general introduction to the subject; the
next nine focus on Old Assyrian society, and the final eight
concern Old Babylonian. The inclusion of "broad" and "narrow"
articles makes this publication of interest both to the
well-informed general reader interested in the Ancient Near East
and to the specialist working on Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian
society. Prof. dr. Klaas R. Veenhof (1935) was a teacher at the
Catholic University of Nijmegen, professor at the Free University
of Amsterdam and from 1982 until his retirement in 2000 professor
at the University of Leiden. Key publications are his dissertation
"Aspects of Old Assyrian Trade and its Terminology" (1972), "The
Old Assyrian list of year eponyms from Karum Kanish and its
chronological implications" (2003), and several editions of Old
Assyrian texts, especially "Altassyrische Tontafeln aus Kultepe"
(1992) and Kultepe Tabletleri 5 and 8 (2005 and 2010).
The naos AM 107 of the Museum of Antiquities of Leiden was built by
king Amasis in the VIth century BC, a period that saw an intense
production of monolithic shrines. Despite its not impressive
dimensions, however, the naos of Leiden stands out for its
originality. What is particularly interesting about this monument
is that its distinctiveness is strictly connected to the nature of
its recipient. Amasis dedicated the naos to Osiris Hemag, one of
the most important and enigmatic Osirian forms of the first
millennium BC. Osiris Hemag represents Osiris in a crucial moment
of his existence, his reawakening. It was precisely this aspect of
the god that strongly influenced both the shape and the decoration
of the naos, creating a unique effect: indeed, this is the only
Egyptian naos showing on his surfaces groups of guardian-deities
who had the task to protect the body of Osiris and to assist him in
his rebirth and rejuvenation. This naos is not only a shrine
housing a statue of Osiris Hemag, but it is also a monument
conveying a new definition of the god and ideas concerning his
rebirth.
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