Chemical pretreatment of nuclear wastes refers to the sequence of separations processes used to partition such wastes into a small volume of high-level waste for deep geologic disposal and a larger volume of low-level waste for disposal in a near-surface facility. Pretreatment of nuclear wastes now stored at several U. S. Department of Energy sites ranges from simple solid-liquid separations to more complex chemical steps, such as dissolution of sludges and removal of selected radionuclides, e. g. , 90Sr, 99Tc, 137CS, and TRU (transuranium) elements. The driving force for development of chemical pretreatment processes for nuclear wastes is the economic advantage of waste minimization as reflected in lower costs for near-surface disposal compared to the high cost of disposing of wastes in a deep geologic repository. This latter theme is expertly and authoritatively discussed in the introductory paper by J. and L. Bell. Seven papers in this volume describe several separations processes developed or being developed to pretreat the large volume of nuclear wastes stored at the US DOE Hanford and Savannah River sites. These papers include descriptions of the type and amount of important nuclear wastes stored at the Hanford and Savannah River sites as well as presently envisioned strategies for their treatment and final disposal. A paper by Strachan et al. discusses chemical and radiolytic mechanisms for the formation and release of potentially explosive hydrogen gas in Tank 241-SY-101 at the Hanford site.

This book of proceedings collects the papers presented at the workshop on "Diagnostics for Experimental Fusion Reactors" held at Villa Monastero, Varenna (Italy) September 4-12, 1997. This workshop was the seventh organized by the International School of Plasma Physics "Piero Caldirola" on the topic of plasma diagnostics and the second devoted to the diagnostic studies for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The proceedings of the first workshop on ITER diagnostics were published by Plenum Press in 1996 with the title "Diagnostics for Experimental Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors". While many of the ideas and studies reported in the first workshop remain valid, there has been sub stantial progress in the design and specification of many diagnostics for ITER. This moti vated a second workshop on this topic and the publication of a new book of proceedings. ITER is a joint venture between Europe, Japan, Russia and USA in the field of con trolled thermonuclear fusion research. The present aim of ITER is to design an experimental fusion reactor that can demonstrate ignition and sustained burn in a magnetically confined plasma. To achieve this goal, a wide range of plasma parameters will have to be measured reliably. It is also anticipated that diagnostics will be used much more extensively as input to control systems on ITER than on present fusion devices and this will require increased relia bility and long-term stability.

With the end of the Cold War, new opportunities for interaction have opened up between the United States and the countries of the Former Soviet Union. Many of these important initiatives involve the US Department of Energy (DOE) and the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Atomic Energy (MINA TOM). Currently, collaboration is under way which involves reactor safety, the disposition of fissile materials from the weapons program, radioactive waste disposal, and the safety of nuclear warheads. Another fruitful area of interchange resulted from the radiochemical storage tank accident at the site of the Siberian Chemical Compound at Tomsk-7 in 1993. DOE and MINATOM agreed to meet and exchange information about the accident for the purposes of improving safety. A meeting on the Tomsk tank accident was held in Hanford, Washington in 1993, followed by a second meeting in st. Petersburg, Russia in 1994 in which the agenda expanded to include radiochemical processing safety. A third exchange took place in 1995 in Los Alamos, New Mexico, and additional papers were presented on nonreactor nuclear safety. Following a planning session in 1996 in Seattle, Washington, it was decided to hold a fourth technical exchange on the broader subject of nuclear materials safety management. Through a grant from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Disarmament Programme, the meeting took place on March 17- 21, 1997, in Amarillo, Texas as a NATO Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) through grant no. DISRM 961315.

A IUTAM symposium on 'Waves in Liquid/Gas and Liquid/Vapor Two-Phase Systems' was held in Kyoto, Japan, 9-13 May 1994. Sixty-three scientists partici pated coming from ten countries, and forty-two lectures were presented. The list of participants and the program are included in this volume. The symposium was held in response to the request of the participants in the IUTAM symposium 'Adiabatic Waves in Liquid-Vapor System' held at Gottingen in 1989. At that time, the need for another symposium in about five years had been indicated by all the participants. This symposium intends to develop the subject of wave properties in more general liquid-gas two-phase systems. Topics in this symposium may be classified as (1) waves in liquid-gas bubble systems including interfacial effects, (2) waves in gas( vapor )-droplets systems, (3) waves in films or stratified systems, (4) waves with liquid-vapor transition, (5) waves with vapor-liquid transition, (6) wave propagation near the critical point and (7) waves with low pressure effect. As for topic (1), experiments, numerical simulations and analytical approaches to waves in bubly liquids were discussed. The importance of interbubble interactions through the liquid-field is now well established at least in terms of potential theory. There was also a progress concerning the well-posedness of governing equations for void waves. For pressure waves there were some new phenomena, such as bubble cluster formation and the occurrence of three-dimensional structures, in addition to a progress from more qualitative studies to quantitative ones."

This comprehensive bibliography (6248 entries) is the first of its kind in the general field of nuclear target preparation for use with particle accelerators. The dates covered are 1936 to June 1980. The bibliography includes thin and thick particle accelerator targets as well as the prepa ration and use of targets in particle accelerators. The entries in the bibliography are arranged in alphabetical order of authors' names. For ease of use, complete subject, country, and patent indexes have been added. A special expression of gratitude is owed to my wife, Jolana, and I also wish to thank Bill Evans and Stephen Talutis for helping me to organize this bibliography. Jozef Jaklovsky v CONTENTS Abbreviations Bibliography 5 Subject Index Headings 255 Subject Index 263 Country Index 303 Patent Index 319 vii Abbreviations AAAC - Australia Atomic Energy Commission ACNTDS - Chalk River Canada, Nuclear Target Development Soc. Proc. AECL - Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., Chalk River AEET - Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay, India AERE - Atomi c Energy Research Establishment, Harwell, Engl and ANL - Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Ill., U. S. A. ANU - Australia National University, Canberra BMFT-FBK - Federal Republic of Germany BNL - Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, N. Y., U. S. A. BNWL - Battelle Pacific Northwest Labs, Richland, Wash., U. S. A. BONN-HE - Bonn University, FRG."

Californium-252 is a neutron emitter with a high specific activity, making it useful in a variety of applications, the most spectacular of which is in brachytherapy for cancer patients. Radiation oncology has exhausted nearly every option for treating radioresistant tumors by photon brachytherapy, and therefore new types of radiation need to be studied to improve the curability of cancer. Audience: Californium brachytherapy is used in only a few radiation therapy centers in the world, so the book will be highly instructive for radiation oncologists, medical physicists and radiobiologists. The nuclear techniques used in clinical applications may also interest nuclear physicists and engineers.

The surplus of plutonium in the world is both an important security issue, and a fact with implications for nuclear energy and environmental policy internationally. The two perspectives are inextricably intertwined in considering options for dealing with the plutonium surplus. It was for this reason that two research programmes at the Royal Institute of International Affairs - respectively on Energy and Environment, and on International Security - jointly approached NATO with a view to organising a work shop on the issue. It was most welcome then to learn that the NATO Science Programe was already supporting plans for a workshop on the issue, initiated by Richard Garwin, and we were pleased to accept the resulting invitation to host that workshop. DrGarwin prepared the initial agenda and established contacts and initial approaches to many of the participants; we were able to develop the agenda further and extend participation in some complementary ways. The result was a most lively and broad-ranging internation al and inter-disciplinary discussion. As the hosts, the RIIA was also given lead responsibility for producing the pro ceedings of the workshop as a publication for NATO. Many of the papers to the work shop are more technical than usually involved in a workshop at the Royal Institute. Yet this is an area in which the policy options are unusually dependent upon a good under standing of the technical issues. which themselves are often a matter of dispute."

Modern nuclear physics is a well developed branch of physical science, with wide-ranging applications of its results in engineering and industry. At the same time, the development of a consistent theory of nuclei and nuclear processes presents certain problems. It is well known that the most important aim of nuclear physics is the study of nuclear structure and the explanation of properties on the basis of the interaction between nucleons which constitute nuclei. Difficulties of a modern theory of the nucleus are caused by both an insufficient knowledge of nuclear interactions and the multi particle character of nuclear systems. Experimental data on nuclear interactions do not contradict the hypothesis of the pair character of nuclear forces. However, the absence of rigorous meth ods of calculations of many particle nuclear systems with strong interaction makes it necessary to use macroscopic nuclear models to describe particular nuclear properties. Nuclear models have been developed in different ways, and the models themselves have been modified and complicated. In spite of the visible discrepancy, different models of the nucleus significantly supple ment one another. The development of nuclear models has led to considerable progress in the understanding of atomic nuclei. The current results of theo retical nuclear physics are reported in numerous scientific papers. The most important and relevant experimental and theoretical results can be found in many monographs, the best of which are written by well-known experts in the field."

The first part of the conference explores two major environmental concerns that arise from fuel use: (1) the prospect that the globe will become warmer as a result of emissions of carbon dioxide, and (2) the effect upon health of the fine particles emitted as combustion products. The conference focused on the fact that there was lack of data direct enough to enable us to predict an entirely satisfactory result, and that makes policy options particularly difficult. With regard to (1) above, in the second half of the 20th century there were major increases in anthropogenic C02 emissions, and it is generally agreed that these were responsible for an increase in C02 concentrations. But the relationship between global temperature and CO2 concentrations remains murky. The principal problem is that water vapor is a more important greenhouse gas than C02 and that the concentrations of water vapor vary widely in time and space. The approach to this problem is probably, but not certainly, a positive feedback effect: as temperature increases so does the water vapor leading to further temperature increases. Scientists associated with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) tend to believe the general features of the models. Other scientists are often less convinced.

The Editors have pleasure in presenting a further volume in the se ries to our international audience. Perhaps the most significant event of the passing year has been the publication by the IAEA of its study of the prob lem of continuing radiation protection in the lands surrounding Chernobyl. The major international project undertaken in 1990 and reported in 1991 is worth reading, not only for its assessment of how radiation protection intervention should be applied de facto in accident conditions, but equally for its account of the modern view of the philosophy of radiation protection. Some would, however, wish to argue that the acknowledgement by Iraq of its three-pronged development of nuclear weapons in conditions of secrecy and antagonism was equally significant and indeed as much a deter minant of the future of peaceful nuclear power as the Chernobyl accident. But it must be clear that the developments of weapons and electricity pro duction are not inescapably bound together; the Iraqi weapons program was not linked to any peaceful power development.

The mathematical technique of Monte Carlo, as applied to the transport of sub-atomic particles, has been described in numerous reports and books since its formal development in the 1940s. Most of these instructional efforts have been directed either at the mathematical basis of the technique or at its practical application as embodied in the several large, formal computer codes available for performing Monte Carlo transport calculations. This book attempts to fill what appears to be a gap in this Monte Carlo literature between the mathematics and the software. Thus, while the mathematical basis for Monte Carlo transport is covered in some detail, emphasis is placed on the application of the technique to the solution of practical radiation transport problems. This is done by using the PC as the basic teaching tool. This book assumes the reader has a knowledge of integral calculus, neutron transport theory, and Fortran programming. It also assumes the reader has available a PC with a Fortran compiler. Any PC of reasonable size should be adequate to reproduce the examples or solve the exercises contained herein. The authors believe it is important for the reader to execute these examples and exercises, and by doing so to become accomplished at preparing appropriate software for solving radiation transport problems using Monte Carlo. The step from the software described in this book to the use of production Monte Carlo codes should be straightforward.

Natural Convection in Composite Fluid-Porous Domains provides a timely overview of the current state of understanding on the phenomenon of convection in composite fluid-porous layers. Natural convection in horizontal fluid-porous layers has received renewed attention because of engineering problems such as post-accident cooling of nuclear reactors, contaminant transport in groundwater, and convection in fibrous insulation systems. Because applications of the problem span many scientific domains, the book serves as a valuable resource for a wide audience.

The management and disposal of radioactive wastes are key international issues requiring a sound, fundamental scientific basis to insure public and environmental protection. Large quantities of existing nuclear waste must be treated to encapsulate the radioactivity in a form suitable for disposal. The treatment of this waste, due to its extreme diversity, presents tremendous engineering and scientific challenges. Geologic isolation of transuranic waste is the approach currently proposed by all nuclear countries for its final disposal. To be successful in this endeavor, it is necessary to understand the behavior of plutonium and the other actinides in relevant environmental media. Conceptual models for stored high level waste and waste repository systems present many sCientific difficulties due to their complexity and non-ideality. For example, much of the high level nuclear waste in the US is stored as alkaline concentrated electrolyte materials, where the chemistry of the actinides under such conditions is not well understood. This lack of understanding limits the successful separation and treatment of these wastes. Also, countries such as the US and Germany plan to dispose of actinide bearing wastes in geologic salt deposits. In this case, understanding the speciation and transport properties of actinides in brines is critical for confidence in repository performance and risk assessment activities. Many deep groundwaters underlying existing contaminated sites are also high in ionic strength. Until recently, the scientific basis for describing actinide chemistry in such systems was extremely limited."

In this global wake-up call, nuclear physicist Jeff Eerkens explores remedies for the impending energy crisis, when oil and natural gas are depleted. The Nuclear Imperative demonstrates that solar, wind, and biomass power are incapable of supplying the enormous quantities of electricity and heat needed for manufacturing portable synthetic fuels to replace our current use of fossil fuels. It offers a fresh look at uranium-produced energy as the optimal affordable solution.

TIlls book is the result of an effort made by several members of the Euratom Neutron Radiography Working Group (NRWG) to produce a new, revised and enlarged edition of the Neutron Radiography Handbooldlj (NRH), written by members of the NRWG and published in 1981, just before the First World Conference on Neutron Radiography (WCNR) (1981). Members of the NRWG have contributed with many papers both to the first (1981)[2), as well as the second (1986)[3) and third (1989) [4) World Conference on Neutron Radiography (WCNR). They were also among the editors of the proceedings of those conferences (1982, 1987, 1990). The NRWG was constituted mainly for the purpose of promoting neutron radiography (NR) in the field of nuclear reactor fuel. Therefore the next topical publication of the NRWG were Reference Neutron Radiographs of Nuclear Reactor Fuel (1984)[5). The book on Collimators for y Thermal Neutron Radiograph 6/ written in 1987 by a member of the NRWG was another publication in the same series of books on NR. To the same series belongs the present book on Practical Neutron Radiography (PNR). It will be followed soon by another book written by the members of the NRWG: Neutron Radiography on Nitrocellulose Filmf71. The NRWG concentrated its interest in the past years on the problem of dimensional measurements from neutron radiographs. The results of the investigation of this problem were summarized in a special EUR report about the Neutron Radiography Working Group Test Program[8/ published in 1989.

25 Die Ventile leiten nur wahrend einer sehr kurzen Zeit, namlich dann, wenn das Potential der Anode positiv gegentiber der Kathode ist. Fig. 24 zeigt eine dreistufige Anordnung. Unter der Annahme idealer Ventile und unter Vernach- lassigung der Streukapazitaten stellen sich an den Knotenpunkten 3, 2, 1 und 3*,2*,1* die in Fig. 25 wiedergegebenen Spannungen ein. Der hier dargestellte, idealisierte Generator liefert eine Leerlaufspannung von 6 U , wobei mit U o o die Amplitude der Transformatorspannung Uocoswt bezeichnet ist. fJ) Der Kaskadengenerator bei Belastung. Wird der Kaskadengenerator durch einen Widerstand oder durch ein Beschleunigungsrohr belastet, so sinkt natur- 8!.1o ~-------~-----0 u/;!.Io r-------"-L---7"c----~L--0 J!.Io Ig / ] !.Iocoswt Fig. 25. Leerlau!spannungen beim Generator in Fig. 24. Fig. 26. Der belastete Kaskadengenerator. gemaB die Ausgangsspannung, und zwar umso starker, je groBer der Belastungs- strom Ig ist. Unter Ig wollen wir den vom Generator gelieferten, arithmetischen Mittelwert des Stromes, also den abgegebenen Gleichstrom verstehen. Wahrend einer Periode lit der Wechselspannung wird der Glattungssaule somit die Ladung Q= Ig (11.1) f entzogen. Falls ein stationarer Zustand bestehen solI, muB diese Ladung periodisch wieder zugeftihrt werden. Dies geschieht dadurch, daB wahrend einer Halbwelle der Wechselspannung die Ladung Q von den Punkten 3* nach 3, bzw. 2* nach 2 und 1 * nach 1 flieBt, wahrend in der andern Halbwelle die Ladung Q von Erde nach 3 * bzw. von 3 nach 2* und von 2 nach 1 * transportiert wird.

As we enter mid-19Bl, the Reagan administration is completing a review of U. s. nuclear waste management policy. Major revisions in the recently announced Carter administration policies are expected. Reagan is a strong supporter of civilian nuclear power and will probably encourage spent fuel reprocessing by the private sector. Meanwhile, the deep geologic disposal of defense nuclear waste in New Mexico moves ahead. In the coming months, discussion and debate of U. S. radioactive waste management policies will intensify in the Congress, in the technical community, and among environ mentalists and the public at large. An important element of the debate should be the scientific and technical issues of the safe disposal of radioactive wastes from both the civilian nuclear power fuel cycle and the defense fuel cycle, including naval pro propulsion programs and nuclear weapons production. The literature of waste management is voluminous, covering all aspects of the world-wide problem of safe disposal. The authors of this book have attempted to cri tically review this literature, selecting the more important reports to abstract. Our selection criteria were heavily influenced by considerations of policy issues and by our experiences in both the technical community and the regulatory environment. Our intent is to identify those reports we feel will contribute the most to the development of a national consensus on the safe disposal of existing and future nuclear wastes as yet another U. S. waste policy emerges in Washington."

This book is intended as an introductory exposition of those nuclear energy systems concepts which are characterized by an integrated utiliz ation of complementary nuclear processes. Basic to such systems is the notion of synergism, which herein implies the cooperative interaction of selected nuclear reactions and system components so as to provide overall advantages not possible otherwise. While the concept of nuclear energy synergism has in recent years become the focus of an increasing number of conferences, scientific papers, and institutional in-house reports, no text which encompasses the major topics of the subject at a conceptual and analytical level has appeared. It is our aim to present a systematic characterization of these emerging nuclear energy concepts suitable for the senior university student of nuclear science and engineering as well for the active pro fessional involved in nuclear energy systems planning and analysis. In addressing the subject of nuclear energy synergism we have become most conscious of the tension between realism and vision in nuclear energy technology. As developed here, our perception of nuclear energy synergism is firmly rooted in the present and then seeks to proceed toward a heightened degree of compatibility and efficacy based on an enhanced integration of relevant nuclear processes. It is our view that such conceptual considerations must assume a greater role in the emerging techological orientation of nuclear energy systems planning.

Most of this book was written before October 1973. Thus the statements concerning the energy crisis are now dated, but remain valid nevertheless. However, the term "energy crisis" is no longer the unusual new concept it was when the material was written; it is, rather, a commonplace expression for a condition with which we are all only too familiar. The purpose of this book is to point out that the science and technology of laser-induced nuclear fusion are an extraordinary subject, which in some way not yet completely clear can solve the problem of gaining a pollution-free and really inexhaustible supply of inexpensive energy from the heavy hydrogen (deuterium) atoms found in all terrestrial waters. The concept is very obvious and very simple: To heat solid deuterium or mixtures of deuterium and tritium (superheavy hydrogen) by laser pulses so rapidly that despite the resulting expansion and cooling there still take place so many nuclear fusion reactions tnat the energy produced is greater than the laser energy that had to be applied. Compression of the plasma by the laser radiation itself is a more sophisticated refinement of the process, but one which at the present stage of laser cechnology is needed for the rapid realization of a laser-fusion reactor for power generation. This concept of compression can also be applied to the development of completely safe reactors with controlled microexplosions of laser-compressed fissionable materials such as uranium and even boron, which fission completely safely into nonradioactive helium atoms.

This vOlume contains the invited and contributed papers pre sented at the American Nuclear Society (ANS) meeting on Decontamina tion and Decommissioning (D & D) of Nuclear Facilities, held Septem ber 16-20, 1979, in Sun Valley, Idaho. This was the first U. S. meeting of the ANS which addressed both of these important and related subjects. The meeting was attended by more than 400 engineers, scientists, laymen, and representatives of federal, state, and local governments, including participants from eleven foreign countries. The technical sessions included several sessions concentrating on ongoing D & D programs in the U. S. and abroad. In addition, "new ground" was broken in such areas as decommissioning costs and cost recovery, advanced programs on reactor coolant filtration, and other areas of continuing and increasing importance to the nuclear industry and to consumers. The dual sponsorship of the meeting (The ANS Reactor Operations Division and the Eastern Idaho Section of the ANS) helped spur a high quality program, a pleasant location, and a high degree of suc cess in technical interchange between the attendees. As guest speaker, we were honored to have Mr. Vince Boyer of Philadelphia Electric Company. Mr. Boyer is both a past chairman of the ANS Reactor Operations Division and a past president of the American Nuclear Society. His views on the nuclear industry and of its current status were informative and interesting."

This is the official record of the International Symposium on "The Role of Nuclear Engineering for an Uncertain Future" which was held on No vember 5 and 6, 1980, at Keidanren Hall in Tokyo, in connection with the 20th Anniversary of the Nuclear Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tokyo. Eight specialists from all over the world were invited to contribute papers to the symposium, and the professors of our Department presented a paper each. The Symposium was divided into seven sessions, chaired by profes sors of the Department according to their specialties. About 200 scientists attended the symposium, and some of them joined the discussions. The symposium was fruitful and very successful from every point of view, and highly evaluated by the attendants as well as by con cerned people outside. This success is due to the successful organization and good performance of the staff of this symposium, to whom I would like to express my grat itude. I also hope that these proceedings will be useful to the specialists who are concerned with the uncertain future of nuclear engineering as well as with the role of Universities in that future."

E. L. Zebroski During the 1970s, there was rapid growth of a philosophy that assumes that deindustrialization will result in an Elysian postindustrial society. This view is generally antitechnology; commonly in opposition to large-scale energy sources; and often supportive of high-cost, speculative, or at most, small-scale energy sources. The social and economic costs of policies which would lead to dein dustrialization are ignored or considered to be irrelevant. The development of civilian nuclear energy as a by-product of wartime developments also brings with it an association with the fear of nuclear weapons and with the repugnance for war in general. Many of these views and associations mingle to provide significant political constituencies. These have had consid erable impact on party platforms and elections. Also, another important aspect is the conservation viewpoint. This view--correctly--concerns the fact that in definite increase in per capita energy consumption, coupled with increasing U.S. and world populations, must at some point be restrained by limits on resources as well as by limits arising from environmental effects. All of these concerns have been subject to voluminous analysis, publications, and public discussion. They underlie one of the dominant social movements of the 1970s and 1980s. Indefinite exponential growth of energy production is neither possible nor de sirable."

Since the introduction of the first commercial inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) instruments in 1983, the technique has gained rapid and wide acceptance in many analytical laboratories. There are now well over 400 instruments installed worldwide, which are being used in a range of disciplines for the analysis of geological, environmental, water, medical, biological, metallurgical, nuclear and industrial samples. Experience oflCP-MS in many laboratories is limited, and there is therefore a need for a handbook containing practical advice in addition to fundamental informa tion. Such a handbook would be useful not only to users new to the technique, but also to users with some experience who wish to expand their knowledge of the subject. Therefore we have written this book for users in a variety of fields with differing levels of experience and expertise. The first two chapters provide a brief history of ICP-MS and discussions of design concepts, ICP physical processes, and fundamental principles of instrument operation. Armed with this background knowledge, users will be better equipped to evaluate advantages and limitations of the technique. Detailed descriptions and information for instrumental components are provided in chapter 3. Subsequent chapters deal with the practical aspects of sample analysis by ICP-MS. Whether samples are to be analysed in liquid, solid .or gaseous form is always an important consideration, and there is a wide choice of sample introduction techniques."

This book brings together various aspects of the nuclear fission phenomenon discovered by Hahn, Strassmann and Meitner almost 70 years ago. Beginning with an historical introduction the authors present various models to describe the fission process of hot nuclei as well as the spontaneous fission of cold nuclei and their isomers. The role of transport coefficients, like inertia and friction in fission dynamics is discussed. The effect of the nuclear shell structure on the fission probability and the mass and kinetic energy distributions of the fission fragments is presented. The fusion-fission process leading to the synthesis of new isotopes including super-heavy elements is described. The book will thus be useful for theoretical and experimental physicists, as well as for graduate and PhD students.