Disorder is everywhere, inherently present in nature, and is commonly believed to be a synonymous with disturbance. As a consequence, the methodical and customary study of the dynamics of the electromagnetic field, both in the linear and nonlinear optical regimes, leans to rule out it from the treatment. On the other hand, nonlinearity enriches the physical disciplines and brings them closer to reality with respect to the linear approximation. Nonlinearity allows to stimulate a wide and rich ensemble of optical responses that beautifies the role of matter in the active processes with electromagnetic fields. Independently of each other, both of these mechanisms foster localization of light. What happens when light enlightens their synergistic interaction? When pushed together, light, disorder and nonlinearity make new and intriguing phenomena emerge. This text provides a comprehensive investigation of the role of disorder in the nonlinear optical propagation both in transparent media and lasers. Eventually, disorder promotes and enhances complex nonlinear dynamics opening new perspectives in applied research driven by the processes of localization of the electromagnetic field. The first experimental study of laser emission in granular media unveils how randomness magnifies and largely affect laser-matter interactions. Viola Folli in her research work touches and deepens the leading milestones of the new science named Complex Photonics.

During the last decade we have been witness to several exciting achievements in electron crystallography. This includes structural and charge density studies on organic molecules complicated inorganic and metallic materials in the amorphous, nano-, meso- and quasi-crystalline state and also development of new software, tailor-made for the special needs of electron crystallography. Moreover, these developments have been accompanied by a now available new generation of computer controlled electron microscopes equipped with high-coherent field-emission sources, cryo-specimen holders, ultra-fast CCD cameras, imaging plates, energy filters and even correctors for electron optical distortions. Thus, a fast and semi-automatic data acquisition from small sample areas, similar to what we today know from imaging plates diffraction systems in X-ray crystallography, can be envisioned for the very near future. This progress clearly shows that the contribution of electron crystallography is quite unique, as it enables to reveal the intimate structure of samples with high accuracy but on much smaller samples than have ever been investigated by X-ray diffraction. As a tribute to these tremendous recent achievements, this NATO Advanced Study Institute was devoted to the novel approaches of electron crystallography for structure determination of nanosized materials.

This Thesis in biological physics has two components, describing the use of X-ray scattering techniques to study the structure of two different stacked lipid membrane systems. The first part focuses on the interaction between a short 11-mer peptide, Tat, which is part of the Tat protein in the HIV-1 virus. Although highly positively charged, the Tat protein has been shown to translocate through hydrocarbon lipid bilayers easily, without requiring the cell's energy, which is counter to its Born self-energy. In this work Tat's location in the headgroup region was demonstrated using a combined X-ray scattering and molecular dynamics approach. Bilayer thinning was observed as well as softening of different membrane mimics due to Tat. It was concluded that Tat's headgroup location, which increases the area/lipid, and its bilayer softening likely reduce the energy barrier for passive translocation. The second part is a rigorous investigation of an enigmatic phase in the phase diagram of the lipid dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC). The ripple phase has fascinated many researchers in condensed matter physics and physical chemistry as an example of periodically modulated phases, with many theoretical and simulation papers published. Despite systematic studies over the past three decades, molecular details of the structure were still lacking. By obtaining the highest resolution X-ray data so far, this work revealed the complex nature of the chain packing, as well as confirming that the major side is thicker than the minor side of the saw-tooth ripple structure. The new model shows that the chains in the major arm are tilted with respect to the bilayer normal and that the chains in the minor arm are slightly more disordered than all-trans gel-phase chains, i.e., the chains in the minor arm are more fluid-like. This work provides the highest resolution X-ray structure of the ripple phase to-date.

The characteristics of electrical contacts have long attracted the attention of researchers since these contacts are used in every electrical and electronic device. Earlier studies generally considered electrical contacts of large dimensions, having regions of current concentration with diameters substantially larger than the characteristic dimensions of the material: the interatomic distance, the mean free path for electrons, the coherence length in the superconducting state, etc. [110]. The development of microelectronics presented to scientists and engineers the task of studying the characteristics of electrical contacts with ultra-small dimensions. Characteristics of point contacts such as mechanical stability under continuous current loads, the magnitudes of electrical fluctuations, inherent sensitivity in radio devices and nonlinear characteristics in connection with electromagnetic radiation can not be understood and altered in the required way without knowledge of the physical processes occurring in contacts. Until recently it was thought that the electrical conductivity of contacts with direct conductance (without tunneling or semiconducting barriers) obeyed Ohm's law. Nonlinearities of the current-voltage characteristics were explained by joule heating of the metal in the region of the contact. However, studies of the current-voltage characteristics of metallic point contacts at low (liquid helium) temperatures [142] showed that heating effects were negligible in many cases and the nonlinear characteristics under these conditions were observed to take the form of the energy dependent probability of inelastic electron scattering, induced by various mechanisms.

The essence of this book can be found in a line written by the ancient Roman Stoic Philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca: "Fortune is of sluggish growth, but ruin is rapid". This sentence summarizes the features of the phenomenon that we call "collapse," which is typically sudden and often unexpected, like the proverbial "house of cards." But why are such collapses so common, and what generates them? Several books have been published on the subject, including the well known "Collapse" by Jared Diamond (2005), "The collapse of complex societies" by Joseph Tainter (1998) and "The Tipping Point," by Malcom Gladwell (2000). Why The Seneca Effect? This book is an ambitious attempt to pull these various strands together by describing collapse from a multi-disciplinary viewpoint. The reader will discover how collapse is a collective phenomenon that occurs in what we call today "complex systems," with a special emphasis on system dynamics and the concept of "feedback." From this foundation, Bardi applies the theory to real-world systems, from the mechanics of fracture and the collapse of large structures to financial collapses, famines and population collapses, the fall of entire civilzations, and the most dreadful collapse we can imagine: that of the planetary ecosystem generated by overexploitation and climate change. The final objective of the book is to describe a conclusion that the ancient stoic philosophers had already discovered long ago, but that modern system science has rediscovered today. If you want to avoid collapse you need to embrace change, not fight it. Neither a book about doom and gloom nor a cornucopianist's dream, The Seneca Effect goes to the heart of the challenges that we are facing today, helping us to manage our future rather than be managed by it.

This book focuses on the modern development of techniques for analysis of the hierarchical structure of polymers from both the experimental and theoretical points of view. Starting with molecular and crystal symmetry, the author explains fundamental and professional methods, such as wide- and small-angle X-ray scattering, neutron diffraction, electron diffraction, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy, NMR, and synchrotron radiation. In addition, the author explains another indispensable method, computer simulation, which includes energy calculation, lattice dynamics, molecular dynamics, and quantum chemistry. These various methods are described in a systematic way so that the reader can utilize them for the purpose of 3D structure analysis of polymers. Not only such analytical knowledge but also the preparation techniques of samples necessary for these measurements and the methods of analyzing the experimental data collected in this way are given in a concrete manner. Examples are offered to help master the principles of how to clarify the static structures and dynamic structural changes in the phase transitions of various kinds of crystalline polymers that are revealed by these novel methods. The examples are quite useful for readers who want to apply these techniques in finding practical solutions to concrete problems that are encountered in their own research. The principal audience for this book is made up of young professional researchers including those working in industry, but it can also be used as an excellent reference for graduate-level students. This book is the first volume of a two-volume set with Structural Science of Crystalline Polymers: A Microscopically Viewed Structure-Property Relationship being the second volume by the same author.

This book presents a comprehensive review of the most important methods used in the characterisation of piezoelectric, ferroelectric and pyroelectric materials. It covers techniques for the analysis of bulk materials and thick and thin film materials and devices.

There is a growing demand by industry to adapt and integrate piezoelectric materials into ever smaller devices and structures. Such applications development requires the joint development of reliable, robust, accurate and - most importantly - relevant and applicable measurement and characterisation methods and models. In the past few years there has been a rapid development of new techniques to model and measure the variety of properties that are deemed important for applications development engineers and scientists.

The book has been written by the leaders in the field and many chapters represent established measurement best practice, with a strong emphasis on application of the methods via worked examples and detailed experimental procedural descriptions. Each chapter contains numerous diagrams, images, and measurement data, all of which are fully referenced and indexed.

The book is intended to occupy space in the research or technical lab, and will be a valuable and practical resource for students, materials scientists, engineers, and lab technicians.

At first glance, the articles in this book may appear to have nothing in common. They cover such seemingly disparate subjects as the properties of small metallic clusters and the behavior of superfluid He3, nuclear physics and organic materials, copper oxides and mag netic resonance. Why have they been brought together, particUlarly in our time of narrow spe cialization? In fact, the properties and effects described in this book touch upon one and the same fundamental phenomenon: pair correlation. Introduced in the theory of superconductivity by J. Bardeen, L. Cooper, and J. Schrieffer (BCS), this effect plays a key role in various Fermi systems. The book consists of several sections. The first chapter is concerned with conven tional and high Tc superconductors. The second chapter describes two relatively young fami lies of superconductors: organics and fullerenes. Chapter III addresses the superfluidity of 3 He * The discovery of this phenomenon in 1971 was a big event in physics and last year was acknowledged by a Nobel prize. This book contains the text of the Nobel lecture. Chapters IV and V are devoted to correlations in finite Fermi systems such as small metallic clusters, C 60 anions, and atomic nuclei. The book thus covers a broad range of problems, illuminating the close ties between various areas of physics.

This book provides a deep insight into recent achievements in synthesis, investigation, and applications of the low-dimensional chalcohalide nanomaterials. The large number of interesting phenomena occur in these compounds, including ferroelectric, piezoelectric, pyroelectric, electrocaloric, Seebeck, photovoltaic, and ferroelectric-photovoltaic effects. Furthermore, the outstanding photoelectrochemical, photocatalytic, and piezocatalytic properties of the chalcohalide nanomaterials have been revealed. Since many chalcohalide semiconductors possess both photoactive and ferroelectric properties, they are recognized as photoferroelectrics. It presents an overview of fabrication of chalcohalide nanomaterials using different methods: mechanical milling of bulk crystals, liquid-phase exfoliation, vapor phase growth, hydro/solvothermal methods, synthesis under ultrasonic irradiation, microwave synthesis, laser/heat-induced crystallization, electrospinning, successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction. The strategies of the chalcohalide nanomaterials processing for construction of functional devices are presented. The book describes solution processing for thin films preparation, spin-coating deposition of polymer composites, solution casting, films deposition via drop-casting, high pressure compression of nanowires into the bulk samples, pressure assisted sintering, and electric field assisted alignment of nanowires. The applications of the chalcohalide nanomaterials for mechanical/thermal energy harvesting and energy storage are presented. Major challenges and emerging trends in fabrication, characterization, and future applications of low-dimensional chalcohalide nanomaterials are discussed. A wealth of information for scholars, graduate students, and engineers involved in research of nanomaterials.

Studies on the electronic properties of conjugated polymers and low molecular weight organic solids have been of increasing interest in recent years. This book is organized into two parts dedicated to these two classes of materials. For each part a general introductory review provides background knowledge of the language and of the main points required for understanding the book's contents. The reviews that follow provide a more complete understanding of the underlying physics of the materials through discussion of the interconnected topics. Theoretical concepts, models and methods are overviewed; this is used to support the explanation of the physical and chemical properties of these materials. The presentation of selected aspects of experimental research greatly contributes to the basic understanding of organic electronic materials.

Features * Fully updated with the latest results from the spacecraft Hinode, Stereo, Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), and Parker Solar Probe * Presents step-by-step explanations for calculating numerical models of the photosphere, convection zone, and radiative interior with exercises and simulation problems to test learning * Describes the structure of polytropic spheres and the acoustic power in the Sun and the process of thermal conduction in different physical conditions

This book resulted from the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on "Electron Kinetics and Applications of Glow Discharges," held in St. Petersburg, Russia, on May 19-23, 1997. Glow discharges have found widespread applications in many technological processes from the manufacture of semiconductors, to recent developments in na- technology, to the traditional fields of gas lasers, and discharge lamps. Consequently, the interest in the physics of glow discharges has experienced yet another resurgence of interest. While the non-equilibrium character of glow discharges is widely accepted, the opinion still prevails that the main features can be captured by fluid models, and that kinetic treatments are only required for the understanding of subtle details. The erroneousness of this belief is demonstrated by the failure of fluid models to describe many basic features of glow discharges such as, for instance, electrode phenomena, striations, and collisionless heating effects. An adequate description of glow discharges thus has to be of kinetic nature.

This thesis reports advances in terahertz time-domain spectroscopy, relating to the development of new techniques and components that enhance the experimentalist's control over the terahertz polarisation state produced by photoconductive emitters. It describes how utilising the dynamic magnetoelectric response at THz frequencies, in the form of electromagnons, can probe material properties at a transition between two magnetically ordered phases. Additionally, preliminary investigations into the properties of materials exposed to extreme terahertz optical electric fields are reported. The work presented in this thesis may have immediate impacts on the study of anisotropic media at THz frequencies, with photoconductive emitters and detectors being the most commonly used components for commercially available terahertz spectroscopy and imaging systems, and by providing a new way to study the nature of magnetic phase transitions in multiferroics. In the longer term the increased understanding of multiferroics yielded by ultrafast spectroscopic methods, including terahertz time-domain spectroscopy, may help develop new magnetoelectric and multiferroic materials for applications such as spintronics.

This thesis presents an in-depth study on the effect of colloidal particle shape and formation mechanism on self-organization and the final crystal symmetries that can be achieved. It demonstrates how state-of-the-art X-ray diffraction techniques can be used to produce detailed characterizations of colloidal crystal structures prepared using different self-assembly techniques, and how smart systems can be used to investigate defect formation and diffusion in-situ. One of the most remarkable phenomena exhibited by concentrated suspensions of colloidal particles is the spontaneous self-organization into structures with long-range spatial and/or orientational orders. The study also reveals the subtle structural variations that arise by changing the particle shape from spherical to that of a rounded cube. In particular, the roundness of the cube corners, when combined with the self-organization pathway, convective assembly or sedimentation, was shown to influence the final crystal symmetries.

As the characteristic dimensions of electronic devices continue to shrink, the ability to characterize their electronic properties at the nanometer scale has come to be of outstanding importance. In this sense, Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) is becoming an indispensable tool, playing a key role in nanoscience and nanotechnology. SPM is opening new opportunities to measure semiconductor electronic properties with unprecedented spatial resolution. SPM is being successfully applied for nanoscale characterization of ferroelectric thin films. In the area of functional molecular materials it is being used as a probe to contact molecular structures in order to characterize their electrical properties, as a manipulator to assemble nanoparticles and nanotubes into simple devices, and as a tool to pattern molecular nanostructures. This book provides in-depth information on new and emerging applications of SPM to the field of materials science, namely in the areas of characterisation, device application and nanofabrication of functional materials. Starting with the general properties of functional materials the authors present an updated overview of the fundamentals of Scanning Probe Techniques and the application of SPM techniques to the characterization of specified functional materials such as piezoelectric and ferroelectric and to the fabrication of some nano electronic devices. Its uniqueness is in the combination of the fundamental nanoscale research with the progress in fabrication of realistic nanodevices. By bringing together the contribution of leading researchers from the materials science and SPM communities, relevant information is conveyed that allows researchers to learn more about the actual developments in SPM applied to functional materials. This book will contribute to the continuous education and development in the field of nanotechnology.

This volume represents the written account of the NATO Advanced Study Institute "Lower-Dimensional Systems and Molecular Electronics" held at Hotel Spetses, Spetses Island, Greece from 12 June to 23 June 1989. The goal of the Institute was to demonstrate the breadth of chemical and physical knowledge that has been acquired in the last 20 years in inorganic and organic crystals, polymers, and thin films, which exhibit phenomena of reduced dimensionality. The interest in these systems started in the late 1960's with lower-dimensional inorganic conductors, in the early 1970's with quasi-one-dimensional crystalline organic conductors. which by 1979 led to the first organic superconductors, and, in 1977, to the fITSt conducting polymers. The study of monolayer films (Langmuir-Blodgett films) had progressed since the 1930's, but reached a great upsurge in . the early 1980's. The pursuit of non-linear optical phenomena became increasingly popular in the early 1980's, as the attention turned from inorganic crystals to organic films and polymers. And in the last few years the term "moleculw' electronics" has gained ever-increasing acceptance, although it is used in several contexts. We now have organic superconductors with critical temperatures in excess of 10 K, conducting polymers that are soluble and processable, and used commercially; we have films of a few monolayers that have high in-plane electrical conductivity, and polymers that show great promise in photonics; we even have a few devices that function almost at the molecular level.

This book presents the high-precision analysis of ground states and low-energy excitations in fractional quantum Hall states formed by Dirac electrons, which have attracted a great deal of attention. In particular the author focuses on the physics of fractional quantum Hall states in graphene on a hexagonal boron nitride substrate, which was recently implemented in experiments. The numerical approach employed in the book, which uses an exact numerical diagonalization of an effective model Hamiltonian on a Haldane's sphere based on pseudopotential representation of electron interaction, provides a better understanding of the recent experiments. The book reviews various aspects of quantum Hall effect: a brief history, recent experiments with graphene, and fundamental theories on integer and fractional Hall effects. It allows readers to quickly grasp the physics of quantum Hall states of Dirac fermions, and to catch up on latest research on the quantum Hall effect in graphene.

This thesis describes the fabrication of metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) structures using very high permittivity dielectrics (based on rare earths) grown by high-pressure sputtering from metallic targets. It demonstrates the possibility of depositing high permittivity materials (GdScO3) by means of high pressure sputtering from metallic targets using in situ plasma oxidation on Si and indium phosphate (InP) substrates. The advantage of this system is the high working pressure, which causes the particles to undergo multiple collisions and become thermalized before reaching the substrate in a pure diffusion process, thus protecting the semiconductor surface from damage. This work presents a unique fabrication using metallic targets and involving a two-step deposition process: a thin metallic film is sputtered in an Ar atmosphere and this film is then plasma oxidized in situ. It also demonstrates the fabrication of GdScO3 on Si with a permittivity value above 30 from metallic Gd and Sc targets. Since co-sputtering was not possible, a nanolaminate of these materials was deposited and annealed. The electrical properties of these devices show that the material is highly interesting from a microelectronic integration standpoint.

The present book covers the transport properties of superconductor/two dimensional electron gas Josephson junctions. Starting with the basic el ement, a superconductor/two dimensional electron gas interface, phase co herent Andreev reflection in hybrid Josephson junctions is introduced and further on, multiterminal structures are discussed. Special care is taken on explaining the underlying theoretical concepts related to the transport mech anisms. Employing a two dimensional electron gas in a semiconductor as a normal conductor opens up the possibility to observe effects not found in purely metallic junctions. One example is the light sensitivity of the semi conductor, which has a direct impact on the supercurrent in the Josephson junction. Many of the effects reported here rely on the fast technological progress in the epitaxial growth of III V semiconductor heterostructures. By using these layer systems, fascinating quantum effects have been found. Two examples out of many are the quantized conductance in a point contact and electron optics using ballistic electron beams. By combining heterostructures with su perconductors, many of the effects found in purely semiconductor systems can in a sense, be transferred to the superconducting state. A prominent example is the quantization of the critical current in a superconducting quantum point contact.

The Theory of High-Tc Superconductivity (P.W. Anderson). Holes in the Quantum Antiferromagner (A. Auerbach, B.E. Larson). Slave Boson Approach to the One Dimensional tJ Model (T.K. Lee, Z. Wang). Universality of Behavior of Electrons on a Ring (F.V. Kusmartsev). Vector Mean Field Theory of Statistics (M.D. Johnson et al.). Superconducting and Magnetic Phase Boundaries in Doped Cu-Based Superconducting Oxides (Y. Gao et al.). Infrared Properties (Z. Schlesinger et al.). On Transport Properties of HTSC Oxides (M. Affronte, D. Pavuna). A Unified Approach to a Description of the Cuprate Superconductors (V.Z. Kresin et al.). ElectronHole Asymmetry (J.E. Hirsch). Properties and Superconductivity of Large Bipolarons (D. Emin). Topological Effects in Disordered Phase of Two-Dimensional Magnet (A.M. Tsvelik, M. Yu. Reizer). Current Status of Fermi Liquid Based Approaches to the Cuprates (K. Levin et al.). 55 additional articles. Index.

Based on courses given at the Ecole Polytechnique in France, this book covers not only the fundamental physics of semiconductors, but also discusses the operation of electronic and optical devices based on semiconductors. It is aimed at students with a good background in mathematics and physics, and is equally suited for graduate-level courses in condensed-matter physics as for self-study by engineers interested in a basic understanding of semiconductor devices.

A text for teachers and students in experimental physics and research engineering, introducing the ideas of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), showing the methods used in MHD, and preparing students for reading the original literature. Based on the mathematical study of simplified models. Annotation copyri

Modern techniques from quantum field theory are applied in this work to the description of ultracold quantum gases. This leads to a unified description of many phenomena including superfluidity for bosons and fermions, classical and quantum phase transitions, different dimensions, thermodynamic properties and few-body phenomena as bound state formation or the Efimov effect. The non-perturbative treatment with renormalization group flow equations can account for all known limiting cases by solving one single equation. It improves previous results quantitatively and brings qualitatively new insights. As an example, new quantum phase transitions are found for fermions with three spin states. Ultracold atomic gases can be seen as an interesting model for features of high energy physics and for condensed matter theory. The research reported in this thesis helps to solve the difficult complexity problem in modern theoretical physics.

The primary objective of these lecture notes is to present the basic theories and analytical methods of plasma physics and to provide the recent status of fusion research for graduate and advanced undergraduate students. I also hope that this text will be a useful reference for scientists and engineers working in the relevant ?elds. Chapters 1-4 describe the fundamentals of plasma physics. The basic concept of the plasma and its characteristics are explained in Chaps.1 and 2. The orbits of ions and electrons are described in several magnetic ?eld con?gurations in Chap.3, while Chap.4 formulates the Boltzmann equation for the velocity space distribution function, which is the basic equation of plasma physics. Chapters 5-9 describe plasmas as magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) ?uids. The MHD equation of motion (Chap.5), equilibrium (Chap.6) and plasma transport (Chap.7) are described by the ?uid model. Chapter 8 discusses problems of MHD instabilities, i.e., whether a small perturbation will grow to disrupt the plasma or damp to a stable state. Chapter 9 describes resistive instabilities of plasmas with ?nite electrical resistivity. In Chaps.10-13, plasmas are treated by kinetic theory. The medium in which waves and perturbations propagate is generally inhomogeneous and anisotropic. It may absorb or even amplify the waves and perturbations. The cold plasma model described in Chap.10 is applicable when the thermal - locityofplasmaparticlesismuchsmallerthanthephasevelocityofthewave.

Although nitric oxide (NO) is an important biological signaling molecule, its free-radical electronic configuration makes it a most reactive molecule and the scariest colorless gas causing immense environmental and health hazards. Detection of NO levels in biological samples and in the atmosphere is therefore crucial. In the past few years, extensive efforts have been devoted to developing many active sensors and effective devices for detecting and quantifying atmospheric NO, NO generated in biological samples, and NO exhaled in the human breath. This book provides a concrete summary of recent state-of-the-art small-molecule probes and novel carbon nanomaterials used for chemical, photoluminescent, and electrochemical NO detection. One chapter is especially dedicated to the available devices used for detecting NO in the human breath that indirectly infers to lung inflammation. The authors with expertise in diverse dimensions have attempted to cover almost all areas of NO sensing.