arranged. Among them the following types are met: nanotubes, nanop-
ticles, nanopowders, nano?bers, nanowires, nanocomposites, etc. *
At the microscale - Microcomposites, such as metal matrix
composites (MMCs), ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), alloys or
superalloys, s- tered powders, ceramic materials,
magnetorheological ?uids (MRFs), etc. * At the macroscale -
Macrocomposites, such as functionally graded ma- rials (FGMs), thin
layers or ?lms, thermal or oxidation or wear resistant coatings,
multilayered structures, long ?ber composites, etc. At each level
of analysis a response of the material to any physical excitation
may be observed, measured and analyzed. In the sense of innovation
of a material, the changes or new ideas can be introduced on the
same scale of control (say, atomic or nano) in order to achieve
fundamentally new behavior on the other scale of observation (say,
micro or macro). For instance, by replacing some similar atoms in
the metal crystal str- ture (e. g. Ti-Ti or Al-Al), by unlike atoms
in the crystal (e. g. Ti-Al), wi- out the lattice symmetry of the
original material changing, new improved properties and
characteristics may be observed in intermetallics at the - cro or
macroscale (higher speci?c strength, better creep resistance at
elevated temperatures, better corrosion resistance, to mention only
some properties observed at the macroscale). Similarly, changing
material characteristics at the nanoscale, enables creation of
completely new material functionality at micro or macroscales (e.
g.
General
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