In most terrestrial and aquatic habitats, the vast majority of animals transmitting and receiving communicative signals are arthropods. This book presents the story of how this important group of animals use pheromones, sound, vibration, and light for sexual and social communication. Because of their small to minute body size most arthropods have problems sending and receiving acoustic and optical information, each of which have their own severe constraints. Because of these restraints they have developed chemical signaling which is not similarly limited by scale. Presenting the latest theoretical and experimental findings from studies of signaling, it suggests that close parallels between arthropods and vertebrates reflect a very limited number of solutions to problems in behavior that are available within the confines of physical laws.

As a student in Cambridge, Alan Hodgkin first became interested in the basis of nerve conduction, using single nerve fibers from a shore crab in his experiments. In 1963, he won the Nobel prize for his work on nerve conduction, and in 1970 became President of the Royal Society. Chance and Design is a fascinating chronicle of Hodgkin's life, providing a glimpse into the world of Cambridge undergraduates in the thirties, the motivation behind his research into nerve conduction, his work on centimeter radar during World War II, and his life as a Cambridge academic after the war. The book concludes with an account of the Nobel prize ceremony in 1963. This highly readable autobiography gives an insight into the working patterns and private life of an eminent scientist, and will appeal not only to scientists, but also to those interested in gaining an understanding of what inspires scientific research.

The rapid development of molecular biology and genetics has led to renewed interest in embryology, comparative embryology, and studies of the relations between ontogeny and phylogeny. In fact, genes have been identified which are involved in the formation of shapes and structures, and it is becoming apparent that their primary morphological expressions are conspicuously similar in different species. The primarily identical shapes do not become diversified until advanced individualization of embryos, and it is here that it is possible to employ the knowledge of comparative embryology, the branch of science engaged in the study of the development and differentiation of tridimensional structures in different animal groups. However, comparative embryology has been neglected during the past decades, as its development has appeared to have been completed. In our opinion, the decreased interest in comparative embryology has been caused by the fact that often the time factor was not or could not be respected. In fact, in the case of embryos of wild animals even their ontogenetic age and sometimes the duration of intrauterine development are unknown.

Sex differences are observed in various physiological, behavioral, and psychic functions, including reproductive behavior, aggres sion, emotions, and cognition. Such differences are expressed even in early childhood with preferences to definite activities. It has been generally accepted that differences between genders are formed under the influence of biological as well as environmental factors. The existence of sex differences in functions of the central nervous system has suggested that there are also morphological sex differences. In recent years several reports on sexual dimorphism in the brain of vertebrates have been published. However, the mecha nisms of sexual differentiation of the central nervous system remain unclear in most cases. It is often difficult to correlate morphological sex differences to differences in definite function or behavior. We set out to explore the sexual dimorphism of the limbic system and especially the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and the amygdala, which are considered generally to be occupied with the control of reproductive behavior and autonomic and compli cated psychic functions. Several reports on sexual dimorphism of these structures have been published. Some of them have been directed to the total neuronal number and the volume of the nuclei, while others have concentrated on definite subpopula tions of neurons. In many cases the mechanisms of sexual differ entiation were tested, but sometimes they could not be estab lished."

Rodents are the predominant experimental animals found in life-sciences research laboratories. The body temperature of a rodent is markedly affected by surgical, chemical or environmental manipulation. Because temperature regulation is controlled essentially by a 'holistic' regulatory system, meaning that its responses affect the activities of all other psychological and behavioural processes, it is clear that researchers working with rodents must be familiar with thermoregulatory physiology. With the help of extensive data tables and figures, this book explains the key facets of rodent thermal physiology, including neurological control and gender and intraspecies variations. There is a novel chapter on the effects of trauma, toxic chemicals and other factors. The book should therefore find use in government, academic or industrial laboratories whose researchers are working with rodents.

This is an extensive collection of essays on all aspects of vision, approached from the perspective of coding and efficiency. It examines the broad spectrum of vision research from one particular, unifying viewpoint, namely the way that visual systems efficiently encode and represent the outside world. This approach, both rigorous and general, was championed by H.B. Barlow in the fifties and has been followed in many areas of vision research. The approach has recently acquired new significance due to the growing interest of computer science and artificial intelligence in the processes of vision, which attempts to describe visual processes in algorithmic terms, equally relevant to a robotic visual system, the eye of a fly or the complex visual pathways in the human brain.

This text is a graduate-level introduction to neural networks, focusing on current theoretical models, examining what these models can reveal about how the brain functions, and discussing the ramifications for psychology, artificial intelligence, and the construction of a new generation of intelligent computers. The book is divided into four parts. The first part gives an account of the anatomy of the central nervous system, followed by a brief introduction to neurophysiology. The second part is devoted to the dynamics of neuronal states, and demonstrates how very simple models may stimulate associative memory. The third part of the book discusses models of learning, including detailed discussions on the limits of memory storage, methods of learning and their associated models, associativity, and error correction. The final section of the book reviews possible applications of neural networks in artificial intelligence, expert systems, optimization problems, and the construction of actual neuronal supercomputers, with the potential for one-hundred fold increase in speed over contemporary serial machines.

This text is a graduate-level introduction to neural networks, focusing on current theoretical models, examining what these models can reveal about how the brain functions, and discussing the ramifications for psychology, artificial intelligence, and the construction of a new generation of intelligent computers. The book is divided into four parts. The first part gives an account of the anatomy of the central nervous system, followed by a brief introduction to neurophysiology. The second part is devoted to the dynamics of neuronal states, and demonstrates how very simple models may stimulate associative memory. The third part of the book discusses models of learning, including detailed discussions on the limits of memory storage, methods of learning and their associated models, associativity, and error correction. The final section of the book reviews possible applications of neural networks in artificial intelligence, expert systems, optimization problems, and the construction of actual neuronal supercomputers, with the potential for one-hundred fold increase in speed over contemporary serial machines.

This book is composed of a set of chapters contributed by past and present collaborators of the Nobel laureate Sir Andrew Huxley, covering the areas of muscle research to which he has made major contributions. The purpose of the book is to discuss the way that muscle works, asking questions at a fundamental level about the molecular basis of muscle tone production and muscle contraction. The majority of the chapters are concerned with muscle physiology and the relation between structure and function. The process of activation of muscle is dealt with, together with the mechanism of contraction itself. Although most of the book concerns itself with vertebrate skeletal muscle, several of the chapters deal with cardiac muscle. The book also features two introductory chapters discussing Sir Andrew's achievements in both nerve and muscle physiology. All those interested in the structure and function of muscle, or cell motility in general, will wish to read this book.

Contents:
Part 1. Insulin Signaling 1. Overview: Tyrosine Kinase Signaling in Insulin Action Martin G, Meyers, Jr. 2. Defects in Early Insulin Signaling in Skeletal Muscle M. Dodon Michel and C. Ronald Kahn 3. Defects in Intermediate Insulin Signaling in Skeletal Muscle: (PI) 3-kinase and Glucose Transport Francesco Giorgino Part 2. Glucose Transport 4. Glucose Transport in Muscle John O. Hollozsy and Lorrine A. Nolte 5. The GLUT4 Compartments of Skeletal Muscle Toolsie Ramlal, Peter Tong, Tony Lam, Romel Somwar, Maureen Charron and Amira Klip Part 3. Substrate Utilization 6. Adverse Metabolic Consequences of Hyperglycemia ('Glucose Toxicity'): Implications for the Pathogenesis of Diabetes Mellitus Donald A. McClain 7. Cellular Mediators of Glucose-Induced Autoregulation of Hexose Transport Evgenia Alpert, Hanan Totrie and Shlomo Sasson 8. Physiological Adaptations in Glucose Utilization of Skeletal Muscle Julian M.R. Mathoo and Mladen Vranic 9. Fatty Acids and Muscle Insulin Resistance Edward W. Kraegen, Gregory J. Cooney, Jiming Ye, Alison L. Thompson and Stuart M. Furler 10. Role of AMP Kinase and Malonyl CoA in Exercise-stimulated Skeletal Muscle Metabolism and Insulin Action David J. Dean and Neil B. Ruderman Part 4. Transgenic and Genetic Models 11. The Use of Mouse Transgenic and Homologous Recombination Technologies to Analyze the Physiologic Basis of Glucose Homeostasis Silvia Mora and Jeffrey E. Pessin 12. Transgenic Approaches to Insulin Signaling Yasuo Terauchi and Takashi Kadowaki 13. Transgenic Models to Study Glucose Transport and Metabolism in Skeletal Muscle Armelle Leturque and Anna-Maria Lombardi Part 5. Diabetic Animals 14. Insulin Resistance in Skeletal Muscle: a Role for Impaired Insulin Activation of Glycogen Synthase Heidi K. Ortmeyer 15. Muscle GLUT4 Traffic and Insulin Resistant States Antonio Zorzano, Eva Tomas, Marta Camps, Anna Guma and Manuel Palacin 16. Glucose Transport in Heart: Special Emphasis on Insulin Resistance and NIDM Jurgen Eckel 17. Cellular Redox State and Insulin Sensitivity: Potential Role of Lipoic Acid Assaf Rudich and Nava Bashan Part 6. Exercise and Aging 18. Exercise Training and Muscle Insulin Resistance: Cellular Adaptations John L. Ivy 19. Effects of Physical Exercise on the Decreased Insulin Action Caused by Aging Yuzo Sato 20. Effects of Aging on Glucose Homeostasis: Cellular Approaches Gregory D. Cartee Part 7. Application to Humans 21. Insulin Resistance: Whole Body Mechanisms in Humans Hannele Yki-Jarvinen 22. Cellular Mechanisms Dana Galuska and Anna Krook

Our highly seasonal world restricts insect activity to brief portions of the year. This feature necessitates a sophisticated interpretation of seasonal changes and enactment of mechanisms for bringing development to a halt and then reinitiating it when the inimical season is past. The dormant state of diapause serves to bridge the unfavourable seasons, and its timing provides a powerful mechanism for synchronizing insect development. This book explores how seasonal signals are monitored and used by insects to enact specific molecular pathways that generate the diapause phenotype. The broad perspective offered here scales from the ecological to the molecular and thus provides a comprehensive view of this exciting and vibrant research field, offering insights on topics ranging from pest management, evolution, speciation, climate change and disease transmission, to human health, as well as analogies with other forms of invertebrate dormancy and mammalian hibernation.

There is often confusion over the meaning and usage of terms such as efficiency, economy, effectiveness, optimization, and perfection in biology. This book defines and discusses these concepts within a broad evolutionary perspective and considers how evolutionary pressures can affect the economy and efficiency of animals. Chapters consider biomaterials, skeletal systems, muscular function, aquatic and terrestrial locomotion, and cardiovascular systems. The result is a book of interest to all biologists, particularly those working in the field of comparative physiology and evolutionary biology.

Preparatory work for this monograph started in 1988 and 1989. The motive was provided by certain incongruities in the illustra- tion of descensus testis for the chapter "Entwicklung der Genital- organe" in the book Humanembryologie. The evoked discussion was reason enough for our own re- search on the phenomenon and uncertainties of testicular des- cent in human. The basis ofthese investigations was the collection of human embryos founded by Prof. Hinrichsen in 1970 at the Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Ruhr-University Bo- chum. The preparation of the material used in this paper has been done with the help of many staff members of our department to whom we feel obliged. We are especially indebted to Prof. Hin- richsen who prepared the foetuses and took the first steps of this project. We wish also to acknowledge Dr. Heinz Jiirgen Jacob for careful fixation and microdissection of specimens intended for scanning electron microscopy. Weare also grateful to Mrs. Vera Mannheim for her involvement and her sensitivity in making scanning electron micrographs, and Mrs. Antje Jaeger for provid- ing an expert and skilful photographic technique especially in the setting up of micrographs. Our thanks are also due to Mrs. Marion Kohn for skilful technical assistance and to all those technical assistants who worked in our department during the past 25 years and who were engaged in providing the serial sec- tions. The English text has been thoroughly revised by Prof. Dr.

Morphogeny of the nasal skull was investigated in 92 embryos of 13 species of Cetacea. Compared to the original nasal capsule of land mammals, the nasal structures of Cetacea show many weighty transformations. As a result, the nostrils are translocated from the tip of the snout to the vertex of the head. Several structures of the embryonic nasal skull remain preserved even in adult cetaceans. The translocation of the nostrils to the highest point of the surfacing body is among the most perfect adaptations of cetaceans to the aquatic life habits. The morphogeny of the nasal skull suggests that all cetaceans are of common origin and form a single monophyletic order. The hitherto usual division of this order into two suborders, Mysticeti and Odontoceti, appears to be unsubstantiated. Rather, at least three closely related superfamilies should be distinguished within the order Cetacea, viz., Balaenopteroidea, Physeteroidea, and Delphinoidea. The results are in a

Originally published in 1991, this book reviews the various metabolic and functional mechanisms that animals possess in order to live successfully in their own particular, often unique, environments. The book's purpose is to demonstrate both the diversity of responses that are shown (be they biochemical, physiological or behavioural) and to demonstrate the underlying principles of gas exchange and transport for a wide range of diverse organisms. What results is a useful review and analysis of our modern understanding of the respiratory physiology of helminths, crustacea, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The approach taken by the editors is essentially comparative and the individual authors were chosen so as to provide a useful, complementary view of the subject.

This book gives a concise account of the physiology and form of the fish circulatory system. The emphasis is primarily on function, but details of structure have been included. Following a revision of ideas on hemodynamics, attention is focused on the heart as the primary pump in the fish circulatory system. The fine structure and the electrical and ionic events of cardiac myocytes are described and the major events of the cardiac cycle are outlined. The structure of the peripheral vessels then follow and attention is devoted to the circulation in certain special areas such as the gills, the renal portal system, and the secondary blood system. There are also chapters devoted to the blood and the hemopoetic tissues and an account is given of the different types of retial systems that concentrate oxygen or heat in various parts of the body. Following a description of the autonomic nervous system, the circulatory responses to exercise and hypoxia are described. The book concludes with a discussion on the circulation of hagfish and how it illuminates our understanding of the functional and structural evolution of the circulatory system.

In this treatise, current knowledge on the neurogenesis, axonal outgrowth, synaptogenesis, and regenerative capacity of descending supraspinal pathways in tetrapods is discussed. Although emphasis is on the clawed toad, Xenopus laevis, chicken embryos, opossums and rodent data, also the data available for primates including man are presented. It will be shown that 1) the outgrowth of descending supraspinal pathways is the result of a coordinated program; 2) the pattern of early descending axonal tracts is similar in all vertebrate groups; 3) the formation of descending supraspinal pathways occurs according to a developmental sequence; 4) the earliest descending supraspinal fibers arrive in a rather immature spinal cord, and 5) the regenerative capacity of descending supraspinal pathways depends on the developmental stage the particular pathways arise.

Only five years ago, nobody in his right mind would have consid ered publishing a book on reeler as a model for brain develop ment. Although this interesting mutation has been with us for half a century, it is fair to say that, in spite of a wave of enthusiasm in the late sixties and early seventies, generated primarily by Sidman, Caviness and colleagues, studies of reeler mice fell pro gressively out of fashion during the next two decades. All that changed almost overnight when the cloning of the reeler gene, dubbed reelin, was reported in Tom Curran's laboratory in 1995. The fact that the same gene was identified at the same time independently by two other groups using positional cloning sug gested strongly that reelin was the right candidate. Although the key experiments of transgenic rescue have not been made (and perhaps will never be), the equation "reeler is reelin" has been established beyond reasonable doubt, as alterations of the reelin gene and/or its expression have been found in at least five alleles of reeler and in the mutation Shaking Rat Kawasaki (SRK), an ortholog of reeler."

Due to their pronounced intraspecific variability and to difficulties in defining their evolutionary trends in mammalian phylogenies, peripheral blood vessels have been neglected in comparative studies. Supported by the Sonderforschungsbereich 89 (Car- diology) of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, we have reconstructed the ontoge- of the blood vessels of the tree shrew, Tupaia belangeri, on the netic morphogenesis basis of a series of developmental stages. The arteries of the lower extremity are described and discussed here. Besides describing the morphogenesis of the arteries in Tupaia, it is the aim of this study to explain the variability of the arteries of the pelvic extremity among mammals, and especially among primates including man, on the basis of a common developmen- tal pattern. This can be shown in the following example. In the popliteal region of most adult mammals the arteria poplitea profunda is situated under the musculus popliteus. In the adult Tupaia, as well as in primates, this artery is missing but, superficial to the musculus popliteus, an arteria poplitea super- ficialis exists. It seems difficult to explain such a case of "discontinuous evolution," because it is hard to imagine the position of the artery should have shifted through the muscle. The present investigation and the literature show that early in the embryonic development of a primate, man, and of Tupaia, both the arteria poplitea profunda and the arteria poplitea superficialis are present.

During pubertal development of the testes, germ cells pass initially through the complete succession of spermatogenic differentiation. Using the golden hamster as a model, this volume presents a comprehensive analysis of that establishing period of mammalian spermatogenesis. Detailed morphological and cell kinetic data of the pubertal seminiferous epithelium reveal a level of cellular organization and synchronization coming near to the adult situation. Characteristic, temporarily occurring perturbations of spermatogenic progression are related to specific delays of Sertoli or Leydig cell maturation, respectively. These results emphasize and specify the close structural and functional interdependence of germ and somatic cell development.

Glomerular flltration represents one of the basic mechanisms in the function of an organism. Our understanding of this process is still quite fragmentary. Regulation of blood flow and pressure, together with regulation of the ultraflltration coefficient (which is an attribute of the flltration barrier), are the two fundamental mechanisms accounting for maintenance and adaptability of glomerular flltration. Regulation of glomerular blood flow is generally considered to result from an interplay between afferent and efferent glomerular arterioles, and much progress has been made recently in understanding this interplay (Navar et al. 1996). The present study provides a detailed structural description of the glomerular vascular pole of rat. The results of this study appear to be relevant for several open questions of glomerular function. First, the interaction between afferent and efferent arterioles in regulating glomerular blood is generally understood to occur between the preglomerular and the postglomerular portions of these vessels. As shown in the present study, the structural elaborations of these arterioles and the spatial relationships between them within the glomerular hilum strongly suggest an interplay also at this site. Moreover, the current understanding of glomerular blood flow regulation by tuning the interplay between afferent and efferent arterioles is exclusively based on signals whose regulatory loops are established in follow-up events outside the glomerulus (tubuloglomerular balance, tubuloglomerular feedback).

Covering the psychological aspects of ergonomics, this volume places considerable emphasis on the radical changes in work practices over the past twenty years stimulated by high technology systems and computerization. Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary activity concerned mainly with people at work, but also with other human purposeful activities such as war, sports, games and leisure. The objective of ergonomics is to make these activities more effective and safer by applying established principles of anatomy, physiology and psychology. Together with Singleton's earlier volume, The Body at Work, this book forms a comprehensive textbook of ergonomics. This is a useful text for undergraduate and graduate students of psychology, physiology, management, social sciences, engineering, industrial design, computer science and information technology.

1.1 Overview The precise knowledge of the three-dimensional (3-D) assembly of biological structures is still in its origin. As an example, a widely accepted concept and common belief of the structure of the airway network oflung is that of a regular, dichotomous branching pattern, also known as the trumpet model. This model, first introduced by Weibel in 1963, is often used in clinical and physiological applications. However, if this concept of dichotomy is used to model lung, a shape is obtained that is quite different from a real lung. As a matter of fact, many previous quantitative morphological and stereological investigations of lung did not concentrate on the spatial aspect of lung morphology but delivered data in a more statistical fashion. Accordingly, the functional behavior predicted by such a model becomes questionable and indeed, the morphometrically predicted lung capacity exceeds the physiological required capacity by a factor of 1.3 up to a factor of2. This problem has also been termed a paradox, as discussed by Weibel in 1983. In the rare cases where descriptive models of the mammalian bronchial tree exist, monopodial in small mammals, dichotomous in larger ones, the understanding of the historical and/or functional reasons for size-related changes in the general design is not explainable. This investigation is trying to overcome this gap by computer modeling and functional simulation.

Cell culture techniques allow a variety of molecular and cell biological questions to be addressed, offering physiological conditions whilst avoiding the use of laboratory animals. In addition to basic techniques, a wide range of specialised practical protocols covering the following areas are included: cell proliferation and death, in-vitro models for cell differentiation, in-vitro models for toxicology and pharmacology, industrial application of animal cell culture, genetic manipulation and analysis of human and animal cells in culture.

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) is a robust defence device protecting animals against repeated consumption of toxic food. It is characterised by the ability of many animals to learn to avoid certain substances by their sight, smell, or taste after experiencing an unpleasant or harmful reaction to them. CTA is encountered at all levels of evolution, with similar forms of food aversion learning found in vertebrate and invertebrate species whose ancestral lines diverged more than 500 million years ago. CTA has a number of unusual properties contrasting sharply with the basic assumptions of traditional learning theories, which has brought it increasingly to the attention of neurobiologists interested in neural plasticity. In CTA, the usual time parameters between stimulus and aversion are relaxed considerably, frequently with delays of hours rather than seconds. Moreover, the critical stage of CTA acquisition may proceed under deep anaesthesia incompatible with other forms of learning. In the past decade several pivotal discoveries have considerably avanced our understanding of the neural processes underlying CTA, and opened new possibilities for their analysis at the molecular and cellular levels. This book, written by three of the world's leading researchers in the subject, comprehensively reviews the current state of research into conditioned taste aversion. The first book of its kind to provide an up-to-date summary of research into the neuroanatomy, pharmacology, electrophysiology, and functional morphology of CTA, it will be welcomed by all researchers and graduate students in the field.