If, ten years ago, one had been asked to comment on the prospects of peering into the fmest details of biomolecular organization, most electron microscopists would, I suppose at least, have been quite en thusiastic. When, during the early seventies, several groups were success ful in visualizing single heavy atoms, which undoubtedly was a techni cal triumph, this prompted the most sanguine expectations among bi ologists. In the following years, however, it began to transpire that radiation damage might impose limitations preventing us from taking full advantage of these exciting instrumental feasibilities. Fortunately, the radiation damage nightmare did no paralyze further activities, and it was in particular the work on the purple membrane which, brilliant ly exploiting the redundancy stratagem, revealed exhilarating new perspectives. Now, almost five years later, it seemed timely and appro priate to organize an international symposium to discuss and weight recent activities and current trends in "molecular microscopy." In planning this symposium, we selected topics according to our view of what is important or will deserve more attention in the near future. Taking into consideration suggestions made by the invited participants, some supplementary aspects were included; as a conse quence, the program developed somewhat beyond the scope as adum brated by the original title of this meeting (Regular 2-D Arrays of Biomacromolecules: Structure Determination and Assembly). As the meeting was organized, we had three morning sessions aimed at reflecting the "State ofthe Art.""

Gas-phase photoacoustics are treated comprehensively for the first time in this book. Review articles by leading scientists in the respective research areas introduce their fields, review present knowledge and conclude with the latest developments and future prospects. Topics covered include the theory of photoacoustics in the frequency and time domains, acoustic resonator models, a great variety of experimental setups and techniques, studies of spectrocopy and fundamental kinetic processes such as energy transfer and chemical reactions, and applications such as air and exhaust monitoring and trace gas detection in biology and agriculture. The book will interest newcomers to photoacoustics, since it gives an overview of the important directions of current research and detailed descriptions of experimental methods. It will also be a valuable source of information for those already involved in photoacoustic research due to its clear presentation of theory and experimental results. All relevant literature references in this rapidly expanding field of laser applications are included.

This book was written, to a not inconsiderable degree, on the basis of the course "The Problems of Modern Biophysics" which the author gives to the students and postgraduates of the Biophysical Department at Moscow University School of Physics. It is meant for those who have a sufficiently good background in physics as well as in biology. I have tried to make this book intelligible to a broader circle of readers, i.e., to physicists not competent enough in biology, and to biologists not competent enough in physics. I hope that I have succeeded. This book is neither a textbook nor a systematic account of a field of science. I think that in modern biological physics, i.e., in the branch of biology where people having fundamental physical or physico-chemical education are working, so many specific answers have been recently obtained that it is now just the right time to ask at least several questions of a general nature. The aim of this book is to formulate such questions though their choice is, to a considerable degree, determined by the authors preferences and interests.

The development of a proper description of the living world today stands as one of the most significant challenges to physics. A variety of new experimental techniques in molecular biology, microbiol ogy, physiology and other fields of biological research constantly expand our knowledge and enable us to make increasingly more detailed functional and structural descriptions. Over the past decades, the amount and complexity of available information have multiplied dramatically, while at the same time our basic understanding of the nature of regulation, behavior, morphogenesis and evolution in the living world has made only modest progress. A key obstacle is clearly the proper handling of the available data. This requires a stronger emphasis on mathematical modeling through which the consistency of the adopted explanations can be checked, and general princi ples may be extracted. As an even more serious problem, however, it appears that the proper physical concepts for the development of a theoretically oriented biology have not hitherto been available. Classical mechanics and equilibrium thermody namics, for instance, are inappropriate and useless in some of the most essen tial biological contexts. Fortunately, there is now convincing evidence that the concepts and methods of the newly developed fields of nonlinear dynam ics and complex systems theory, combined with irreversible thermodynamics and far-from-equilibrium statistical mechanics will enable us to move ahead with many of these problems."

Modern Methods of Plant Analysis When the handbook Modern Methods of Plant Analysis was first introduced in 1954 the considerations were: 1. the dependence of scientific progress in biology on the improvement of existing and the introduction of new methods; 2. the difficulty in finding many new analytical methods in specialized journals which are normally not accessible to experimental plant biologists; 3. the fact that in the methods sections of papers the description of methods is frequently so compact, or even sometimes so incomplete that it is difficult to reproduce experiments. These considerations still stand today. The series was highly successful, seven volumes appearing between 1956 and 1964. Since there is still today a demand for the old series, the publisher has decided to resume publication of Modern Methods of Plant Analysis. It is hoped that the New Series will be just as acceptable to those working in plant sciences and related fields as the early volumes undoubtedly were. It is difficult to single out the major reasons for success of any publication, but we believe that the methods published in the first series were up-to-date at the time and presented in a way that made description, as applied to plant material, complete in itself with little need to consult other publications. Contributing authors have attempted to follow these guidelines in this New Series of volumes.

Applications of Cryogenic Technology, Vol. 10, is the proceedings from the portion of the conference CRYO-90 sponsored by the Cryogenic Society of America (CSA). CRYO-90, held on the campus of the State University of New York, Binghamton, New York, was an unusual interdisciplinary event, drawing from the life sciences as well as the physical science and engineering areas of the low temperature community. Co-sponsoring CRYO-90 with CSA were the Society for Cryobiology and the Symposium on Invertebrate and Plant Cold Hardiness. These latter two organizations brought an exciting developing field to the conference, a field whose exploration will lead to the betterment of all mankind through improved cryosurgical and organ preservation techniques in addition to improved agricultural and herd yields under extreme conditions. Specific goals of the cryobiological community are cryopreservation, the arrest and recovery of living processes of cells, tissues and organs; and cryosurgery - the local cryodestruction of diseased cells while preserving the healthy surrounding tissue. These goals present great technological challenges. The technological requirements of the cryobiologist include the ability to cool tissues 6 at rates of 10 degrees per second (vitrification), to thaw frozen tissue without damaging the delicate cells, to freeze dry tissue using molecular distillation (vacuum) drying, to supercool cell structures below O DegreesC without freezing, and to successfully store the preserved tissues and organs for any required length of time.

At the time that the editors conceived the idea of trying to organize the meeting on which the contents of this volume are based and which became, in March 1980, a NATO Advanced Study Institute, the techniques of time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, in both the nanosecond and sub-nanosecond time-domains, might reasonably have been said to be coming of age, both in their execution and in the analysis and interpretation of the results obtained. These techniques, then as now, comprised mainly a number of pulse methods using laser, flash-lamp or, most recently, synchrotron radiation. In addition, significant developments in the more classical phase approach had also rendered that method popular, utilizing either modulation of an otherwise continuous source or, again recently, the ultra-rapid pulse rate attainable with a synchrotron source. In general terms, time-resolved fluorescence studies are capable, under appropriate conditions, of supplying direct kinetic information on both photophysics and various aspects of molecular, macromolecular and supramolecular structure and dynamics. The nanosecond and sub-nanosecond time-scales directly probed render these techniques particularly appropriate in studying relaxation and fluctuation processes in macromolecules, particularly biopolymers (e. g. proteins, nucleic acids), in supramolecular assemblies such as cell membranes, and in a variety of relatively simpler model systems.

Similarities in structure and function between pigs and human beings include size, feeding patterns, digestive physiology, dietary habits, kidney structure and function, pulmo nary vascular bed structure, coronary artery distribution, propensity to obesity, respiratory rates, tidal volumes and social behaviors. Since the pig is an omnivore, it provides an adaptable model to evaluate chronic and acute exposures to xenobiotics such as alcohoL caffeine, tobacco, food additives and environmental pollutants. Swine have been used successfully as models to evaluate alcoholism, diabetes, absorption, digestion, total paren teral nutrition, organ transplantation, atherosclerosis, exercise, hypertension. hemorrhagic hypotension, melanoma, gingivitis, obstructive and reflux nephropathy. osteochondrosis. dermal healing and septic shock. A severe and worsening shortage of organs and tissues for transplantation in patients with severe organ failure has encouraged the consideration of inter species or xenotransplan tation. In developing programs toward this end, the pig generally is viewed as the preferred donor because of its size, physiology and availability. The pig harbors relatively few diseases which could be transmitted inadvertently to human patients. The ability to genetically modify swine to ameliorate the consequences of the human immune response offers a further significant advantage. Another important consideration for an animal model is that basic biologic back ground information be available for investigators to design future prospective studies."

Bioinorganic chemistry is primarily concerned with the role of metal atoms in biology and is a very active research field. However, even though such important structures of metalloenzymes are known, as the MoFeCo of nitrogenase, Cu or Mn superoxide dismutase and plastocyanin, the synthetic routes to the modelling of such centers remains a matter of acute scientific interest. Other metalloenzymes, such as the Mn center of the oxygen evolving complex of PSII, are still the focus of in-depth examination, both spectroscopic and structural. Another area of concern is the interaction between drugs and metals and metal ion antagonism. Understanding the chemistry of metal ions in biological systems will bring benefits in terms of understanding such problems as biomineralization and the production of advanced materials by micro-organisms. The 29 contributions to Bioinorganic Chemistry: An Inorganic Perspective of Life give an excellent summary of the state of the art in this field, covering areas from the NMR of paramagnetic molecules to the use of lanthanide porphyrins in artificial batteries.

Soft X-rays are a powerful probe of matter. They interact selectively with electrons in atoms and molecules and can be used to study atomic physics, chemical reactions, surfaces and solids, and biological entities. Over the past 20 years, synchrotrons have emerged as powerful sources of soft X-rays for experimental use. A new, third generation of synchrotron light sources is scheduled to start operation over the next few years, beginning in 1993. These facilities are distinguished by their ultra-low emittance electron beams and by their undulators -- precisely engineered magnetic devices that cause the electrons passing through them to produce highly coherent X-rays and ultraviolet light of unprecedented spectral brightness. This volume emphasizes third-generation sources that produce light in the 10 eV--10 KeV energy range. It describes potential applications ranging from the purely scientific to the commercially viable and includes chapters on the practical aspects of designing undulators and beam line optics. Unique in its coverage, the book is a vital addition to the library of any scientist who needs information on the world's most advanced imaging and spectroscopic techniques. (ABSTRACT) This volume emphasizes the applications of new third generation synchrotron radiation sources that produce light in the ultraviolet and soft X-ray range of the spectrum. The unprecedented brightness of this light enables experiments to be conducted with greatly increased spatial and spectral resolution. Scientists can exploit these properties for imaging and spectroscopic applications that until now were impossible or impractical. Prominent researchers in the field describe these applications and others made possible by the light's pulsed time structure and polarization. The volume also includes chapters on the practical aspects of designing undulators and beam line optics.

Tens of thousands of different animal species live on this planet, having survived for millions of years through adaptation and evolution, which has given them a vast variety of structures and functions. Biomechanical studies of animals swimming and flying can aid understanding of the mechanisms that enable them to move effectively and efficiently in fluids . Based on such understandings and analyses, we can aim to develop environmentally friendly machines that emulate these natu ral movements. The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 agreed major treaties on biological diversity, addressing the comb ined issues of environmental protection and fair and equitable economic development. With regard to coastal environments, increasing biological diversity has begun to play an important role in reestablishing stable and sustainable ecosystems. This approach has begun to influence research into the behavior of aquatic species, as an understanding of the history of an individual aquatic species is indispensable in constructing an environmental assessment mod el that includes the physical, chemical, and biological effects of that species . From an engineering viewpoint, studying nature's biological diversity is an opportunity to reconsider mechanical systems that were systematically constructed in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. We have been accumulating knowledge of the sys tems inherent in biological creatures and using that knowledge to create new, envi ronmentally friendly technologies.

A good deal of the material presented in this book has been prepared by top experts in the field lecturing in January 1987 at the Winter School on Solitons in Tiruchirapalli, India. The lectures begin at an elementary level but go on to include even the most recent developments in the field. The book makes a handy introduction to the various facets of the soliton concept, and will be useful both to newcomers to the field and to researchers who are interested in developments in new branches of physics and mathematics

Provided here are the latest techniques of NMR as applied to the study of proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids.
The first chapters are devoted to an introduction to NMR and parameters related to molecular structure and molecular interactions. NMR experiments from basic 1D to 2D, 3D and 4D, used in combination with isotopically labelled molecules, are described and a general strategy is presented for biomacromolecular structure determination. Subsequent chapters deal with more advanced principles and techniques and their applications to structural and dynamic processes involving biomacromolecules in solution. Advanced results on peptide, protein, oligosaccharide and nucleic acid structure and recognition are presented.

The workshop on "Antennas and Reaction Centers of Photosynthetic Bac teria" was held at Feldafing, Bavaria (F. R. G. )' March 23-25, 1985. This workshop focussed on primary processes with emphasis on structure, inter actions and dynamics. It assessed structural, spectroscopic and dynamic data which have accumulated recently, providing an overview of the mech anism of the acquisition, storage and useful disposal of energy in bacterial photosynthesis. This volume is a record of the invited papers presented at the workshop. The material was organized into five sections: I. Antennas: Structure and Energy Transfer II. Reaction Centers: Structure and Interactions III. Electron Transfer: Theory and Model Systems IV. Reaction Cen,ters: Structure and Dynamics V. Model Systems on Function of Antennas and Reaction Centers I would like to express my gratitude to all the participants in the work shop for their contributions, and to the authors for the timely preparation of their manuscripts. I am indebted to the members of the organizing committee, Professors Sighart F. Fischer and Hugo Scheer for their most valuable assistance and advice. The workshop would not have been so successful without the help of my secretary, Frau Petra KahlfuB, and my coworkers in its organization. I thank Frau KahlfuB particularly also for her assistance in the preparation of these proceedings. The workshop was organized under the auspices of the Technical Uni versity of Munich, the Max-Planck-Society and the University of Munich.

The Editorial Board and the Publishers of the Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology wish to express their profound grief at the untimely death of Professor Peter Baker. Aware of his international recognition as an expert on the ubiquitous role of calcium in physiological processes and their pharma cological control, the Board was gratified when Professor Baker accepted its invitation to edit a new Handbook volume on "Calcium in Drug Actions". He went about this task with his usual energy and effectiveness so that, in the few months before his unexpected death, Professor Baker had mustered his distinguished contributors, got them to provide their manuscripts, and seen almost the entire material into the press. This achievement is all the more remarkable when one bears in mind the extraordinary number of his other commitments during the same time; they are mentioned in Sir Alan Hodgkin's preface to this volume. With so many other professional and personal responsibilities upon him, the Board of the Handbook wishes to record its grateful appreciation for the admirable way in which Professor Baker took on and carried out the additional work of bringing this fine book into existence; and the Board wishes it to be dedicated to the memory of Professor Peter Frederick Baker. The Editorial Board: G. V. R. BORN, P. CUATRECASAS, H. HERKEN, A.

"How does a photon get into an atom?" This question puzzled not only leading scientists, e.g. Schrodinger and Heisenberg. It is still asked by students. And it is, indeed, a key question of quantum mechanics.
James D. Macomber's book was the first to provide a didactic and unified approach to the answer. It has been updated with recent experimental results and modern theoretical interpretations, including quantum correlation effects in condensed matter, four-wave mixing and synchrotron radiation . The book has been written for final year undergraduate students in Chemistry and Physics. It provides an understanding for similarities among the spectroscopic methods, and is stimulating to read."

The field of non-crystalline materials has seen the emergence of many challeng ing problems during its long history. In recent years, the interest in polymeric and biological disordered matter has stimulated new activities which in turn have enlarged the organic and inorganic glass community. The current research fields and recent progress have extended our knowledge of the rich phenomenol ogy of glassy systems, where the role of disorder is fundamental for the underlying microscopic dynamics. In addition, despite the lack of a unified theory, many interesting theoretical models have recently evolved. The present volume offers the reader a collection of topics representing the current state in the understanding of disorder effects as well as a survey of the basic problems and phenomena involved. The task of compiling a book devoted to disordered systems has benefited much from a seminar organized by the W.-E. Heraeus Foundation in Bad Honnef in April 1992, where we had the opportunity to discuss the project with most of the authors. Here we wish to thank the Heraeus Foundation for their support, and the authors and Springer-Verlag, especially Dr. Marion Hertel, for the pleasant cooperation."

This book is intended mainly for biochemists who would like to augment experimentalresearch in thedomainofaminoacids andsmallpeptideswith theoretical calculations at the ab initio level. The book does not require a profound knowledge of mathematics and quantum chemistry. It teaches one rather how to use computer software such as the Gaussian programs and gives examples of problems treated in this manner. Chapter 1 describes the calculations and one of the programs used for ab initio work. Chapter 2 describes calculations on small amino acids, such as glycine and alanine. Chapter3discusses the biochemical propertiesofGABA (gamma amino butyricacid), which isoneofthe most important amino acids ofthe nervous system.Ab initio calculations performed in order to study the structure of GABA are presented. Chapter 4 discusses an amino acid related to GABA, namely DABA (diaminobutyricacid), presentinginformation about itsstructureand trans port properties. A number of amino acids, essentials in the biochemistry of organisms, are discussed in Chapter 5. These acids have been subjected to ab initio investigation. Proline, a special amino acid as far as structure is concerned, is discussed in Chapter 6. Chapter7discusses two sulfur-containingamino acids, taurine and hypo taurine, presenting some experimental studies on their mode of action and an ab initio study of their structure. Startingwith Chapter8, small peptidesofgreat importancearediscussed. Glucagon, a small peptide that plays a role in diabetes, is the subject of Chapter 8. Chapter 9 discusses the pheromone alpha factor, from an experimental and theoretical point of view. Chapter 10 presents calculations on tight turns in proteins."

The articles in this volume are based on papers presented at the International Symposium in Bad Neuenahr November 29 - December 1, 1982. The meeting was directed by H. Frohlich and was sponsored by IBM Deutschland through its Science and Education Programs Department. Contents Coherence in Biology H. Frohlich . Coherent Excitations and Raman Effect F. Drissler and L. Santo (With 4 Figures) 6 The Non-thermal Effect of Millimeter Wave Radiation on the Puffing of Giant Chromosomes F. Kremer, C. Koschnitzke, L. Santo, P. Quick, and A. Poglitsch (With 4 Figures) 10 Nonthermal Resonant Effects of 42 GHz Microwaves on the Growth of Yeast Cultures W. Grundler, F. Keilmann, V. Putterlik, L. Santo, D. Strube, and I. Zimmermann (With 15 Figures) 21 On the Microwave Response of the Drosophila Melanogaster G. Nimtz (With 5 Figures) 38 Effects of Low-level Millimeter Waves on Cellular and Subcellular Systems S. M. Motzkin, L. Benes, N. Block, B. Israel, N. May, J. Kuriyel, L. Birenbaum, S. Rosenthal, and Q. Han (With 12 Figures). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Millimeter-wave and Far-infrared Spec roscopy on Biological Macromolecules L. Genzel, F. Kremer, A. Poglitsch, and G. Bechtold (With 10 Figures). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Excitation of Proteins by Electric Fields J. B. Hasted, S. K. Husain, A. Y. Ko, D. Rosen, E. Nicol, and J. R. Birch (With 8 Figures) 71 Isotope Effects and Collective Excitations M. U. Palma (With 3 Figures) 84 Long-range Energy Continua in the Living Cell: Protochemical Considerations G. R. Welch and M. N. Berry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques in Ophthalmology explores the special noninvasive tools developed to function as diagnostic indicators and to further our understanding of ocular function. The volume's focus is on new development in instrumentation and techniques for studying the cornea, lens, retina, vitreous, and aqueous dynamics; whereby special attention is given to how each technique has improved our understanding of basic processes and diagnostic capability. Theoretical aspects, possible sources of error, current problems and limitations, safety evaluation, and future applications and directions are considered. Topics examined include ophthalmic image processing; magnetic resonance imaging of the eye and orbit; diagnostic ocular ultrasound; corneal topography; holographic contour analysis of the cornea; wide field and color specular microscopy; use of the Fourier transform method for statistical evaluation of corneal endothelial morphology; confocal microscopy; in vivo corneal redox fluorometry; evaluation of cataract function with the Scheimp-flug camera; fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy of the crystallin lens; in vivo uses of quasi-elastic light scattering; fundus reflectometry; and clinical visual psychophysics measurements. The book offers discussions of fractal analysis of human retinal blood vessel patterns, scanning laser tomography of the living human eye, fundus imaging and diagnostic screening for public health, and digital image processing for ophthalmology, as well as a detailed appendix comprising additional topics and sources.

The existence of coherent excitations in active biological systems has been established in recent years. The present book aims at presenting a survey on the many features that such ex citations can exhibit. This does not mean that a "theory of biology" has been established but it implies that such a theory will make use of such excitations. It is hoped that the present book will help in this direction. April 1988 H. Frohlich Contents Theoretical Physics and Biology H. Frohlich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . Theory of Non-linear Excitations F. Kaiser (With 9 Figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Structures, Correlations and Electromagnetic Interactions in living Matter: Theory and Applications E. Del Giudice, S. Doglia, M. Milani and G. Vitiello. . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Resonant Cellular Effects of Low Intensity Microwaves W. Grundler, U. J entzsch, F. Keilmann and V. Putterlik (With 14 Figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 . . . . . . . The Influence of Low Intensity Millimetre Waves on Biological Systems F. Kremer, L. Santo, A. Poglitsch, C. Koschnitzke, H. Behrens and L. Genzel (With 17 Figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Metastable States of Biopolymers J. B. Hasted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Physical Aspects of Plant Photosynthesis F. Drissler (With 25 Figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Emission of Radiation by Active Cells J. K. Pollock and D. G. Pohl (With 6 Figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Physiological Signalling Across Cell Membranes and Cooperative Influences of Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields W. R. Adey (With 7 Figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 The Interaction of living Red Blood Cells S. Rowlands (With 2 Figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 The Genetic Code as Language F. Frohlich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 . . . . . ."

Recent years have witnessed an explosion of knowledge lea- ding to a molecular understanding of the mechanisms of ac- tion of calcium on excitation and contraction coupling and its role in the regulation of contractility. This book highlights the most recent progress as well as providing a historial perspective of the field. It presents a concise and comprehensive overview of our current knowledge regar- ding calcium channels and regulatory proteins as well as in- tracellular calcium handling and the mechanisms underlying the activation of contractile proteins. It also describes how these basic mechanisms have been adapted in various types of muscle, especially in cardiac and smooth muscle.

Recently, there have been significant advances in the fields of high-enthalpy hypersonic flows, high-temperature gas physics, and chemistry shock propagation in various media, industrial and medical applications of shock waves, and shock-tube technology. This series contains all the papers and lectures of the 19th International Symposium on Shock Waves held in Marseille in 1993. They are published in four topical volumes, each containing papers on related topics, and preceded by an overview written by a leading international expert. The volumes may be purchased independently.

This second volume in Modern Methods of Plant Analysis, New Series concentrates on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, a powerful technique that is now being used for plant studies in a major way. This is the first time that a series of chapters by leading experts on the application of NMR to plant cells has been assembled in a single volume. The methods are described in detail so that even beginners can apply them directly in the laboratory. Topics include general metabolism in higher plants and fungi, intercellular pH, energy status, DNA structure analysis, multiple quantum two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy, chloroplast orientation, rubber analysis, and the use of NMR to determine pollen viability. This volume should provide not only an excellent practical guide to the possibilities of NMR application to the plant sciences, but also give impetus to its future use.

To preserve tissue by freezing is an ancient concept going back pre sumably to the practice of ice-age hunters. At first glance, it seems as simple as it is attractive: the dynamics of life are frozen in, nothing is added and nothing withdrawn except thermal energy. Thus, the result should be more life-like than after poisoning, tan ning and drying a living cell as we may rudely call the conventional preparation of specimens for electron microscopy. Countless mishaps, however, have taught electron microscopists that cryotechniques too are neither simple nor necessarily more life-like in their outcome. Not too long ago, experts in cryotechniques strictly denied that a cell could truly be vitrified, i.e. that all the solutes and macro molecules could be fixed within non-crystalline, glass-like solid water without the dramatic shifts and segregation effects caused by crystallization. We now know that vitrification is indeed pos sible. Growing insight into the fundamentals of the physics of water and ice, as well as increasing experience of how to cool cells rapidly enough have enlivened the interest in cryofixation and pro duced a wealth of successful applications."