The handling of actinides and actinide-based materials provides significant technological challenges due to the toxicity and radioactivity associated with these materials. These challenges are particularly apparent in the nuclear power industry. Under normal operation, a reactor can produce a significant amount of spent fuel requiring subsequent containment for geologic times, and under accident conditions it can release lethal doses of radioactive material to the environment. Inevitably, radioactive material will enter the environment, necessitating as complete an understanding as possible of its behavior. An understanding of the interaction between actinides and the environment must be based on a knowledge of their basic physical and chemical properties. To date, although there is general agreement on the principles for waste disposal, no facility has been built for the long term disposal of high level radioactive waste from either normal reactor operations or from accidental catastrophes. This makes it most important for the scientific and technical community to develop the necessary cross-disciplinary understanding that will help us implement safe and secure waste management, accident remediation and accident prevention systems.

This book examines one of the most important and complex of the world's tropical rainforest regions: the greater Panama Canal Watershed. The Rio Chagres is the primary water source for operating the Canal, and supplies potable water for municipal use and electricity generation, but science has left this important national resource largely unstudied. The text promotes understanding of the physical and ecological components of an isolated and largely pristine tropical rainforest.

Biology Distribution and ecology Taphonomy and preservation Field sampling and coring Laboratory procedures Data analysis and interpretation Summary Acknowledgements References 9. Chrysophyte scales and cysts. B. A. Zeeb & J. P. Smol 203 Introduction Taxonomy and nomenclature Methods Paleolimnological applications Future research directions Summary Acknowledgements References 10. Ebridians. A. Korhola & J. P. Smol 225 Introduction Morphology, taxonomy and preservation in the sediments Methodological aspects Brief history of use of ebridians in palaeoecological research Indicator value and future research priorities Summary Acknowledgements References 11. Phytoliths. D. R. Piperno 235 Introduction and history Phytolith production and taxonomy Laboratory methods Applications of phytolith analysis in lake sediments Summary of the major results Other potential applications of phytoliths in lake sediments Summary Acknowledgments References x 12. Freshwater sponges. 253 T. M. Frost Introduction Sponge species and their distribution Sponge life history Sponge spicules Paleolimnological studies using freshwater sponges Techniques for assessing sponge spicules in sediments Future applications of sponges in paleolimnology Summary Acknowledgements References 13. Siliceous protozoan plates and scales. M. S. V. Douglas & J. P. Smol 265 Introduction History and taxonomy Ecology Paleoecological potential Laboratory methods Data presentation Paleolimnological applications Other related siliceous indicators Summary Acknowledgements References 14. Biogenic silica. D.J. Conley & C.L Schelske 281 Introduction and history Methods Applications Future directions Summary Acknowledgements References 15. Sedimentary pigments.

The first part of this book reviews the basics of atmospheric chemistry, radiation transport, and optical spectroscopy before detailing the principles underlying DOAS. The second part describes the design and application of DOAS instruments as well as the evaluation and interpretation of spectra. The recent expansion of DOAS application to the imaging of trace gas distributions by ground, aircraft, and satellite-based instruments is also covered.

Paleolimnology is a rapidly developing science that is now being used to study a suite of environmental and ecological problems. This volume is the fourth handbook in the Developments in Paleoenvironmental Research book series. The first volume (Last & Smol, 2001a) examined the acquisition and archiving of sediment cores, chronological techniques, and large-scale basin analysis methods. Volume 2 (Last & Smol, 2001b) focused on physical and chemical methods. Volume 3 (Smol et al. , 2001), along with this book, summarize the many biological methods and techniques that are available to study long-term environmental changeusing information preserved in sedimentary profiles. A subsequent volume (Birks et al. , in preparation) will deal with statistical and data handling procedures. It is our intent that these books will provide sufficient detail and breadth to be useful handbooks for both seasoned practitioners as well as newcomers to the area of paleolimnology. These books will also hopefully be useful to non-paleolimnologists (e. g. , limnologists, archeologists, palynologists, geographers, geologists, etc. ) who continue to hear and read about pal- limnology, but have little chance to explore the vast and sometimes difficult to access journal-based reference material for this rapidly expanding field. Although the chapters in these volumes target mainly lacustrine settings, many of the techniques described can also be readily applied to fluvial, glacial, marine, estuarine, and peatland environments. This current volume focuses on zoological indicators preserved in lake sediments, whilst Volume 3 focused on terrestrial, algal, and siliceous indicators.

Coastal zones play a key role in Earth System functioning and form an "edge for society" providing a significant contribution to the life support systems. Goods and services derived from coastal systems depend strongly on multiple transboundary interactions with the land, atmosphere, open ocean and sea bottom. Increasing demands on coastal resources driven by human habitation, food security, recreation and transportation accelerate the exploitation of the coastal landscape and water bodies. Many coastal areas and human activities are subject to increasing risks from natural and man-induced hazards such as flooding resulting from major changes in hydrology of river systems that has reached a global scale. Changes in the hydrological cycle coupled with changes in land and water management alter fluxes of materials transmitted from river catchments to the coastal zone, which have a major effect on coastal ecosystems. The increasing complexity of underlying processes and forcing functions that drive changes on coastal systems are witnessed at a multiplicity of temporal and spatial scales.

In a time when an unquestionable link between anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and climatic changes has finally been acknowledged and * widely documented through IPCC reports, the need for precise estimates of greenhouse gas (GHG) production rates and emissions from natural as well as managed ecosystems has risen to a critical level. Future agreements between nations concerning the reduction of their GHG emissions will - pend upon precise estimates of the present level of these emissions in both natural and managed terrestrial and aquatic environments. From this viewpoint, the present volume should prove to a benchmark contribution because it provides very carefully assessed values for GHG emissions or exchanges between critical climatic zones in aquatic en- ronments and the atmosphere. It also provides unique information on the biases of different measurement methods that may account for some of the contradictory results that have been published recently in the literature on this subject. Not only has a large array of current measurement methods been tested concurrently here, but a few new approaches have also been developed, notably laser measurements of atmospheric CO concentration 2 gradients. Another highly useful feature of this book is the addition of - nitoring and process studies as well as modeling.

Origins of fallout radionuclides Sediment records of fallout radionuclides Simple dating models Vertical mixing Numerical techniques Radiometric techniques Discussion Summary Acknowledgements References 10. chronostratigraphic techniques in paleolimnology. Svante Bjorck & Barbara Wohlfarth 205 Introduction Methods and problems Radiocarbon-dating different fractions of the sediment as a chronostratigraphic tool Dating of long (old) stratigraphies High resolution dating and wiggle matching dating versus absolute dating techniques of lacustrine sediments Concluding remarks Summary Useful www addresses Acknowledgements References 11. Varve chronology techniques. Scott Lamoureux 247 Introduction Methods Summary and future directions Acknowledgements References 12. Luminescence dating. Olav B. Lian & D. J. Huntley 261 Introduction The mechanism responsible for luminescence Dating and estimation of the paleodose Thermoluminescence dating Optical dating Evaluating the environmental dose rate xi Sample collection and preparation What types of depositional environments are suitable for luminescence dating? What can lead to an inaccurate optical age? Summary Acknowledgements References 13. Electron spin resonance (ESR) dating in lacustrine environments. Bonnie A. B. Blackwell 283 Introduction Principles of ESR analysis Sample collection ESR analysis ESR microscopy and other new techniques Applications and datable materials in limnological settings Summary Acknowledgements References 14. Use of paleomagnetism in studies of lake sediments. John King & John Peck 371 Introduction Recording fidelity of geomagnetic behavior by sediments Field and laboratory methods Holocene SV records Magnetostratigraphic studies of Neogene lake sediments Excursions, short events and relative paleointensity Conclusions Summary References 15. Amino acid racemization (AAR) dating and analysis in lacustrine environments."

Theory Instrumentation NIR analysis of sediment samples Uses of NIRS in palaeolimnology Future perspectives Summary References Fly-ash particles. Neil Rose 319 12. Introduction A brief history Methods of extraction and enumeration Temporal distribution Spatial distribution Source apportionment The future Summary Acknowledgements References Part III: Stable Isotope Techniques 13. Application of stable isotope techniques to inorganic and biogenic carbonates. Emi Ito 351 Introduction Nomenclature and systematics of lake-water Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios of lake-water of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) Carbonates in lake-sediments Mollusks Ostracodes Charaphytes Isotope analysis Preparation of carbonate samples for isotope analysis Conclusions Summary Acknowledgments References 14. Carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of lake sediment cellulose: methods and applications. Brent B. Wolfe, Thomas W. D. Edwards, Richard J. Elgood & Kristina R. M. Beuning 373 xi Introduction Stable isotope tracers in lake Historical development Methods Key criteria for paleohydrologic reconstruction Applications Future research directions Summary Acknowledgements References Nitrogen isotopes in palaeolimnology. Michael R. Talbot 15. 401 Introduction Nitrogen in lakes: forms and distribution Nitrogen isotopes Nitrogen isotope studies in palaeolimnology: sampling and measurement Some examples Closing remarks Summary Acknowledgments References Glossary, acronyms and abbreviations 441 Index 493 xiii PREFACE The explosive growth of paleolimnology over the past two decades has provided impetus for the publication of this series of monographs detailing the numerous advances and new techniques being applied to the interpretation of lake histories. This is the second volume in the series and deals mainly with physical and geochemical analytical techniques.

Interest in the study of early European cultures is growing. These cultures have left us objects made of gold, other metals and ceramics. The advent of metal detectors, coupled with improved analytical techniques, has increased the number of findings of such objects enormously. Gold was used for economic and ceremonial purposes and thus the gold objects are an important key to our understanding of the social and political structures, as well as the technological achievements, of Bronze and Iron Age European societies. A correct interpretation of the information provided by gold and other metal objects requires the cooperation of experts in the fields of social, materials and natural science. Detailed investigation of gold deposits in Europe have revealed the composition and genesis of the deposits as sources of the metal. In Prehistoric Gold in Europe, a group of leading European geoscientists, metallurgists and archaeologists discuss the techniques of gold mining and metallurgy, the socioeconomic importance of gold as coinage and a symbol of wealth and status, and as an indicator of religious habits, as well as a mirror of trade and cultural relations mirrored by the distribution and types of gold objects in prehistoric times.

Dating the Quaternary, which covers approximately the last 2 million years, has experienced considerable progress over the past few decades. On the one hand, this resulted from the necessity to obtain a valid age concept for this period which had seen tremendous environmental changes and the advent of the genus Homo. On the other hand, instrumental improvements, such as the introduction of highly sensitive analytical techniques, gave rise to physical and chemical innovations in the field of dating. This rapid methodological development is still in full progress. The broad spectrum of chronometric methods applicable to young rocks and artifacts also becomes increasingly intricate to the specialist. Hence, it is my goal to present a comprehensive, state-of-the-art sum mary of these methods. This book is essentially designed as an aid for scientists who feel a demand for dating tasks falling into this period, i. e., Quaternary geologists and archaeologists in the broadest sense. Since it has been developed from a course of lectures for students of geological and archaeological sciences, held at the University of Heidelberg, it certainly shall serve as an introduction for students of these disciplines."

Hydrogeology of Crystalline Rocks deals with deep groundwater in the granite and gneiss basement of the continents. It has become evident during the past years that highly mineralized water is present in an interconnected fracture network of the basement. Thus, the upper part of the crust of the continents can be viewed as an aquifer and investigated with tools common in hydrogeology. This book presents accounts on water-conducting features of crystalline rocks and summarizes the hydraulic properties of the basement. The volume includes reviews, new data and research on the often remarkable chemical composition of deep groundwater. Microbial processes in the deep basement aquifer are probably more important than previously thought. Two contributions focus on this recent extension of research of the biosphere to greater depth in the Earth. This book represents the first multidisciplinary and integrated account of deep groundwater hydrology in crystalline basement. It is of interest to hydrologists and hydrogeologists working with water in crystalline rocks, but also to solid earth geophysicists, geochemists and petrologists with an interest in fluids in the crust. Scientists involved in nuclear waste disposal programs and geothermal energy development will find a wealth of stimulating ideas in this volume.

The goal of this book is to examine the complex state of radioactivity in the environment, and to understand the interplay of its two principal sources: man-made and natural. The text examines human contributions to release of radionuclides, with an eye to future reductions, and assesses natural occurrences in an evaluation of baseline radioactivity.

This book consists of papers presented at a symposium "PLANT-INDUCED SOIL CHANGES: PROCESSES AND FEEDBACKS" that was held during the American Society of Agronomy-Soil Science Society of America Annual Meeting in Indianapolis, November 4-8, 1996. The papers were also pub of Biogeochemistry (Vol. 42, nos. 1 and 2, 1998). The lished in a special issue symposium was built on the growing realisation that plant-induced changes in soil feed back in various ways to natural vegetations, giving rise to a plethora of plant-soil interactions beyond the classical one-way cause-and-effect pathways plant-to-soil and soil-to-plant. The aim of this special issue is not in the first place to present new research findings, but to review and discuss the more holistic aspects of plant-soil interactions, providing more room for speculation than do most collections of research papers. After a general introduction which emphasises ecological and evolutionary aspects of plant-soil interac ions (van Breemen and Finzi), three papers deal with particular effects of plants on soil properties: mineralogy (Kelly et al. ), soil structure (Angers and Caron) and soil fertility (Berendse). Next, five papers take up plant-soil interactions in specific biomes: forests (Binkley and Giardina; Gobran et al. ), grasslands (Burke et al.; Epstein et al. ) and deserts (Schlesinger and Pilmanis). Two papers discuss plant-soil interactions via effects of differences in litter quality in specific ecosystems: California's pygmy forest (Northup et al. ) and the Alaskan Taiga (Schimel et al. )."

Few processes are as important for environmental geochemistry as the interplay between the oxidation and reduction of dissolved and solid species. The knowledge of the redox conditions is most important to predict the geochemical behaviour of a great number of components, the mobilities of which are directly or indirectly controlled by redox processes. The understanding of the chemical mechanisms responsible for the establishment of measurable potentials is the major key for the evaluation and sensitive interpretation of data. This book is suitable for advanced undergraduates as well as for all scientists dealing with the measurement and interpretation of redox conditions in the natural environment.

30% discount for members of The Mineralogical Society of Britain and Ireland

This volume addresses the fundamental factors that underlie our understanding of mineral behaviour and crystal chemistry - a timely topic given current advances in research into the complex behaviour of solids and supercomputing.

Population: Answering the Needs and Demands The world's human populationis 6. 6+ billion people and growing(by 80 million in 2005). Most of the growth is in less developed nations. The Population Reference Bureau (2006) estimates that the global population will reach 7. 9 billion people by 2025. It is projected to stabilize at 9. 2+ billion people by 2050. Governmentsstrive to attract industrial, manufacturing, services, and other projects to advance their economiesandthuscopewithexistingsocial andpoliticalproblemsand futurech- lenges heightened by expanding populations. They are encouraged in these efforts by international lending and development organizations such as the World Bank and the International Finance Corporation. These and other multilateral, regional and sub-regional development banks make funds available for economic and social improvement programs in developing countries (Table p. 1). Well-planned projects can stimulate economic growth and create wealth in a society. This wealth can be used to promote the health, education, and general welfare status of its members, and their employment opportunities even as populations expand. There are many theories that de ne and expound on economic development. Malizia and Feser (1999) summarize the theories in terms of their essential - namics, strengths and weaknesses, and how they are applied to achieve growth. All theories agree that economic advancement is based on investing capital in projects that can ourish and yield nancial gain over extended periods of time.

"Polymineral-Metasomatic Crystallogenesis" is dedicated to the foundations of polymineral crystallogenesis in solutions typically occurring in nature. Effects, laws, and mechanisms of a metasomatic crystal replacement, joint crystal growth of different phases, mixed crystal formation, and aggregate re-crystallization as well as oriented overgrowth (epitaxy and quasi-epitaxy) and crystal habit origin are considered experimentally. The behaviour of these processes in nature are discussed in addition to pseudomorphs, poikilitic crystals (and other replacement forms), features of rapakivi structure, fluorite morphology, and many more. The concept is a generalization of the classic theory on crystallogenesis which is complicated by phase interaction in polymineral systems.

"Polymineral-Metasomatic Crystallogenesis" is designed for chemists, geologists, physicists, and postgraduates and advanced undergraduate students of these fields.

This book covers the basics of abiotic colloid characterization, of biocolloids and biofilms, the resulting transport phenomena and their engineering aspects. The contributors comprise an international group of leading specialists devoted to colloidal sciences. The contributions include theoretical considerations, results from model experiments, and field studies. The information provided here will benefit students and scientists interested in the analytical, chemical, microbiological, geological and hydrological aspects of material transport in aquatic systems and soils.

Stable Isotope Geochemistry is an introduction to the use of stable isotopes in the geosciences. It is subdivided into three parts: theoretical and experimental principles; fractionation processes of light and heavy elements; the natural variations of geologically important reservoirs. Since the application of stable isotopes to earth sciences has grown in the last few years, a new edition appears necessary. Recent progress in analysing the rare isotopes of certain elements for instance allow the distinction between mass-dependent and mass-independent fractionations. Special emphasis has been given to the growing field of "heavy" elements. Many new references have been added, which will enable quick access to recent literature. For students and scientists alike the book will be a primary source of information with regard to how and where stable isotopes can be used to solve geological problems.

Contamination of the earth's ecosystems by potentially toxie metalsl metalloids is a global problem. It will likely grow with our planet's increasing populations and their requirements for natural resources (e. g. , water, food, energy, waste-disposal sites) and metals-based goods. The health impacts of pollution from the ingestion of heavy metals/metalloids via respiration, food, and drinking water are most often long-term and manifest themselves in many ways. These include, for example, disminution of mental acuity, loss of motor control, critieal organ dysfunction, cancer, chronie illnesses and con- comitant suffering, incapacitation, and finally death. The incidence and geographie distribution of disease (epidemiology) has been well-documented historieally and in modern times for toxic metals- triggered diseases in humans, animals and vegetation. The role of the environmental geochemist and colleagues in environ- mental sciences is to scientifically evaluate how to manage metalsl metalloids at sources or in-situ so as to alleviate or eliminate their negative health impacts on living populations. This is initiated by identifying sources and by developing models of the physieal, chem- ieal and biologieal controls on mobilization, interaction, deposition and accumulation of potentially toxie metals/metalloids in source systems and earth ecosystems. Prom this knowledge base, environ- mental scientists (e. g. , geologists, chemists, biologists, environmen- tal engineers, physicists/meteorologists) work together to develop Preface VI concepts and technologieal methodologies to preserve global eco- systems. Their concerted efforts are equally focussed on devising strategems to remediate ecosystems still carrying heavy metals/metal- loids pollutant burdens from ancient and modern societies.

This book presents contributions by experts from diverse disciplines, estimating the global levels of biogeogenic and anthropogenic emissions of organometal(loid) compounds, and thus presenting insight into processes which influence the genesis, as well as the distribution and stability of these species and their interaction with each other and other matrix compounds. The authors evaluate identify potential "hot spots" of organometal(loid)s, which can negatively influence ecosystems and human health.

The origin of different kinds of igneous rocks can be understood in terms of their tectonic setting, and by way of the isotope compositions of strontium, neodymium, and lead. This book explains the petrogenesis of igneous rocks as a consequence of tectonic processes resulting from interactions between asthenopheric plumes and the overlying lithospheric mantle. The relevant principles of isotope geochemistry are explained in the first chapter, making it accessible for university students as well as professionals. The relevant isotopic data is presented in diagrammatic form. The book contains more than 400 original drawings.

Coalbed gas has been considered a hazard since the early 19th century when the first mine gas explosions occurred in the United States in 1810 and France in 1845. In eastern Australia methane-related mine disasters occurred late in the 19th century with hundreds of lives lost in New South Wales, and as recently as 1995 in Queensland's Bowen Basin. Ventilation and gas drainage technologies are now in practice. However, coalbed methane recently is becoming more recognized as a potential source of energy; rather than emitting this gas to the atmosphere during drainage of gassy mines it can be captured and utilized. Both economic and environmental concerns have sparked this impetus to capture coalbed methane. The number of methane utilization projects has increased in the United States in recent years as a result, to a large extent, of development in technology in methane recovery from coal seams. Between 1994 and 1997, the number of mines in Alabama, Colorado, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia recovering and utilizing methane increased from 1 0 to 17. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that close to 49 billion cubic feet (Bet) of methane was recovered in 1996, meaning that this amount was not released into the atmosphere. It is estimated that in the same year total emissions of methane equaled 45. 7 Bcf. Other coal mines are being investigated at present, many ofwhich appear to be promising for the development of cost-effective gas recovery.

Geochemical barrier zones play an important role in determining various physical systems and characteristics of the oceans, e.g. hydrodynamics, salinity, temperature and light. In this book, each of the 40 barrier zones covered are illustrated and defined by physical-chemical parameters. Among the topics discussed are the processes of inflow, transformation and precipitation of the sedimentary layer of the open oceans and more restricted areas such as the Baltic, Black and Mediterranean Seas. This well-illustrated book may serve as the basis for courses such as "Marine Geochemistry" or "Ocean Usage" and can be useful to researchers in the fields of geology, geography, marine chemistry, geoecology and hydrochemistry.