Does 2 + 2 = 4? Ask almost anyone and the answer will be an unequivocal yes. A basic equation such as this seems the very definition of certainty, but how is this so?
In this captivating book, Helen Verran addresses precisely that question by looking at how science, mathematics, and logic come to life in Yoruba primary schools. Drawing on her experience as a teacher in Nigeria, Verran describes how she went from the radical conclusion that logic and math are culturally relative, to determining what Westerners find so disconcerting about Yoruba logic and to a new understanding of all generalizing logic. She reveals that in contrast to the one-to-many model found in Western number systems, Yoruba thinking operates by figuring things as wholes and their parts. Quantity is not absolute but always relational. Certainty derives not from abstract logic, but from cultural practice and association.
A powerful story of how one woman's investigation into an everyday African situation led to extraordinary conclusions about the nature of numbers, generalization, and certainty, this book will be a signal contribution to philosophy, anthropology of science, and education.

Dieser Buchtitel ist Teil des Digitalisierungsprojekts Springer Book Archives mit Publikationen, die seit den Anfangen des Verlags von 1842 erschienen sind. Der Verlag stellt mit diesem Archiv Quellen fur die historische wie auch die disziplingeschichtliche Forschung zur Verfugung, die jeweils im historischen Kontext betrachtet werden mussen. Dieser Titel erschien in der Zeit vor 1945 und wird daher in seiner zeittypischen politisch-ideologischen Ausrichtung vom Verlag nicht beworben.

Dieser Buchtitel ist Teil des Digitalisierungsprojekts Springer Book Archives mit Publikationen, die seit den Anfangen des Verlags von 1842 erschienen sind. Der Verlag stellt mit diesem Archiv Quellen fur die historische wie auch die disziplingeschichtliche Forschung zur Verfugung, die jeweils im historischen Kontext betrachtet werden mussen. Dieser Titel erschien in der Zeit vor 1945 und wird daher in seiner zeittypischen politisch-ideologischen Ausrichtung vom Verlag nicht beworben.

Dieses Bandchen setzt in keiner Weise mathematische Kenntnisse voraus und mOchte sich an jeden wenden, der mit Verstandnis rechnen gelernt und die Preude daran nicht verloren hat. Seiner ganzen Passung nach durfte es viel leicht den Liebhabern der Kulturgeschichte nicht unwill kommen sein. Dasseldorf, Weihnachten 1922. Ewald Fettwel8. INHALTSVERZEICHNIS 1. Oie ersten Anfange des Zahlens und Rechnens (Fing- rechnen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2. Das Rechnen bei den vom Griechentum unabhangigen Kulturvolkern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3. Das Rechnen bei den Griechen und Romern 19 4. Oie Abazisten des Fruhmittelalters . 30 5. Das Rechnen bei den Indern . . . . . . . 36 6. Das Rechnen bei den Arabern . . . . . . . 40 7. Die Auswirkung der indisch-arabischen Rechenmethoden im Abendland a) das Rechnen mit ganzen Zahlen. . . . . . . . . 44 . b) das Rechnen mit Bruchen und die Brfindung der De. zimalbruchrechnung . . . . . 48 8. Die Ahazisten des Spatmittelalters 51 9. Schluss . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 1. DIE ERSTEN ANFANGE DESZAHLENSUND RECHNENS (FINGERRECHNEN) Die Menschen haben in den altesten Zeiten in rein an schaulicher Weise mit Hilfe konkreter Gegenstande, z. B. mit Steinchen, Weizenkornern, Schlangenkopfen, Stabchen, Grashalmen, Knotenschnnren, Kerbholzern gezahlt und ge rechnet. Ausdrncke wie das franzosische "calculer" = "mit Steinehen hantieren" und die Bezeichnung der mexikanischen Tarahumaren fur rechnen=, ab haufen" oder "zu Haufen ver teilen" weisen noch darauf hin. Das am weitesten verbreitete und beliebteste Rechenhilfsmittel der Menschheit waren aber die Finger. Sie wurden benutzt, ahnlich wie es jetzt noch unsere Kinder in der Schule machen. Belege dafur lassen sich genug erbringen."

Jesuit engagement with natural philosophy during the late 16th and early 17th centuries transformed the status of the mathematical disciplines and propelled members of the Order into key areas of controversy in relation to Aristotelianism. Through close investigation of the activities of the Jesuit 'school' of mathematics founded by Christoph Clavius, The Scientific Counter-Revolution examines the Jesuit connections to the rise of experimental natural philosophy and the emergence of the early scientific societies. Arguing for a re-evaluation of the role of Jesuits in shaping early modern science, this book traces the evolution of the Collegio Romano as a hub of knowledge. Starting with an examination of Clavius's Counter-Reformation agenda for mathematics, Michael John Gorman traces the development of a collective Jesuit approach to experimentation and observation under Christopher Grienberger and analyses the Jesuit role in the Galileo Affair and the vacuum debate. Ending with a discussion of the transformation of the Collegio Romano under Athanasius Kircher into a place of curiosity and wonder and the centre of a global information gathering network, this book reveals how the Counter-Reformation goals of the Jesuits contributed to the shaping of modern experimental science.

Pythagorean thought, from the civilisation of Ancient Greece, is still prevalent in religion, poetry, philosophy, music, architecture and the classical sciences today. This fascinating and insightful collection of essays by experts in their fields explores the Pythagorean tradition, drawing out connections in form, number and geometry as well as light, colour, music and poetry. The contributors include Robert Lawlor, Keith Critchlow, Kathleen Raine, Anne Macaulay and Arthur Zajonc. Previously published as Rediscovering Sacred Science.

Dieser Buchtitel ist Teil des Digitalisierungsprojekts Springer Book Archives mit Publikationen, die seit den Anfangen des Verlags von 1842 erschienen sind. Der Verlag stellt mit diesem Archiv Quellen fur die historische wie auch die disziplingeschichtliche Forschung zur Verfugung, die jeweils im historischen Kontext betrachtet werden mussen. Dieser Titel erschien in der Zeit vor 1945 und wird daher in seiner zeittypischen politisch-ideologischen Ausrichtung vom Verlag nicht beworben.

An erster Stelle bringt dieses Doppelheft der Mater i a I i e n einen Abschnitt aus dem in Vorbereitung befindlichen Aufsatze von A. Ga 11 e uber die geodatischen Arbeiten von Gauss; da es sich um einen Gegenstand handelt, der uber die Geodasie hinaus greift und ein selbstandiges Interesse besitzt, schien es angebracht, diesen Abschnitt .dem eigentlichen Aufsatze vorauszuschicken. Das Zahlenrechnen greift in die ganze Tatigkeit von Gauss in der reinen wie in der angewandten Mathematik ein, und darum war dem Verfasser die gutige Unterstutzung der Mitarbeiter an der Herausgabe der Werke von Gauss, sowie einiger anderer Gelehrten sehr willkommen; er mochte auch an dieser Stelle M. Brendel, F. Klein, L. Kruger, A. Loewy, P. Maennchen, L. Schlesinger, P. Stackel und G. Witt fur verschiedene Bemerkungen und Hin weise seinen verbindlichen Dank zum Ausdruck bringen. An zweiter Stelle erscheint der Aufsatz von P. Stackel uber Gauss als Geometer, der sich den Aufsatzen von Bach mann uber die zahlentheoretischen und von Schlesinger uber die funktionentheoretischen Arbeiten von Gauss anreiht. Der Ver fasser ist F. Klein und L. Schlesinger fur das grosse Interesse verpflichtet, dass sie seiner Arbeit wahrend ihrer Entstehung ent gegenbrachten, nicht minder auch fur eine Reihe wertvoller Be merkungen, die sie wahrend der Korrektur beigesteuert haben. An der Korrektur beteiligten sich ferner F. Engel, A. Galle und A."

zu der hinterlassenen Abllamllullg VOll Abel, S. 57-81. -- 1 Die Definition der Ordnung eines algebraischen Ausdrucks, wie sie auf Seite 67 gegeben ist, ist incorrcct und nach der auf S. 10 angefiihrten zu berichtigen. Die Ordnung eines algebraischen Ausdrucks ist also nicht gleich der Anzahl der in ihm ausser den bekannten Groessen auftretenden Wurzelgroessen, sondern vielmehr, wenn man sich des Symbols V-Wie ublich zur Bezeichnung der Wurzelgroessen bedient, gleich der groessten von denjenigen Zahlen, welche angeben, wie viele solcher Wurzelzeichen sich in dem gegebenen algebraischen Ausdruck uber einander erstrecken. Dabei wird vorausgesetzt, dass, wenn ein Wurzelzeichen einen Index hat, welcher eine zusammengesetzte Zahl ist, dasselbe nach der Formel 1Jtn m -V-= VFso weit umgeformt werde, bis siimtliche Wurzelzeiehen Primzahl exponenten tragen, und dass sich keines dieser Wurzelzeichen durch Ausfuhrung der durch dasselbe angedeuteten Operation beseitigen Hisst. Kommen in einem algebraischen Ausdruck mehrere solcher auf einander oder auf algebrai. che Ausdrucke niederer Ordnung nicht reducierbarer Wurzelgroessen vor, in denen jene, die groesste Anzahl der iiber einander sich erstreekenden 'Wurzelzeichen angebenden Zahlen einander gleich sind, so giebt die Anzahl derselben den Grad des algebraischen Ausdrucks an. - Ist In die Ordnung des algebraischen Ausdrucks und bezeichnet man die einzelnen Wurzelgroessen in der Reihenfolge, wie sie numerisch berechnet werden ter mussen, um den Wert der Wurzelgroesse m Ordnung zu erhalten, mit ""m-l . . . .

Now available in a one-volume paperback, this book traces the development of the most important mathematical concepts, giving special attention to the lives and thoughts of such mathematical innovators as Pythagoras, Newton, Poincare, and Godel. Beginning with a Sumerian short story--ultimately linked to modern digital computers--the author clearly introduces concepts of binary operations; point-set topology; the nature of post-relativity geometries; optimization and decision processes; ergodic theorems; epsilon-delta arithmetization; integral equations; the beautiful "ideals" of Dedekind and Emmy Noether; and the importance of "purifying" mathematics. Organizing her material in a conceptual rather than a chronological manner, she integrates the traditional with the modern, enlivening her discussions with historical and biographical detail.

This volume offers a broad, philosophical discussion on mechanical explanations. Coverage ranges from historical approaches and general questions to physics and higher-level sciences . The contributors also consider the topics of complexity, emergence, and reduction. Mechanistic explanations detail how certain properties of a whole stem from the causal activities of its parts. This kind of explanation is in particular employed in explanatory models of the behavior of complex systems. Often used in biology and neuroscience, mechanistic explanation models have been often overlooked in the philosophy of physics. The authors correct this surprising neglect. They trace these models back to their origins in physics. The papers present a comprehensive historical, methodological, and problem-oriented investigation. The contributors also investigate the conditions for using models of mechanistic explanations in physics. The last papers make the bridge from physics to economics, the theory of complex systems and computer science . This book will appeal to graduate students and researchers with an interest in the philosophy of science, scientific explanation, complex systems, models of explanation in physics higher level sciences, and causal mechanisms in science.

During the period of national isolation, a mathematical tradition called wasan flourished in Japan. Though virtually unknown to Europeans before the Meiji Restoration, its practitioners, the wasanka, produced some results comparable to (and sometimes in advance of) those of mathematicians of the European Enlightment. This volume, a companion to Unger's earlier translation of solutions by Aida Yasuaki (1747-1817), focuses on problems that Aida most likely used as a teacher. Unger explains the reasons for believing this, and sheds further light on the intellectual milieu in which Aida worked by discussing other books by Aida, including one in which he describes Dutch techniques of navigation.

Alain Badiou has claimed that Quentin Meillassoux's book After Finitude (Bloomsbury, 2008) "opened up a new path in the history of philosophy." And so, whether you agree or disagree with the speculative realism movement, it has to be addressed. Lacanian Realism does just that. This book reconstructs Lacanian dogma from the ground up: first, by unearthing a new reading of the Lacanian category of the real; second, by demonstrating the political and cultural ingenuity of Lacan's concept of the real, and by positioning this against the more reductive analyses of the concept by Slavoj Zizek, Alain Badiou, Saul Newman, Todd May, Joan Copjec, Jacques Ranciere, and others, and; third, by arguing that the subject exists intimately within the real. Lacanian Realism is an imaginative and timely exploration of the relationship between Lacanian psychoanalysis and contemporary continental philosophy.

The first critical work to attempt the mammoth undertaking of reading Badiou's Being and Event as part of a sequence has often surprising, occasionally controversial results. Looking back on its publication Badiou declared: "I had inscribed my name in the history of philosophy". Later he was brave enough to admit that this inscription needed correction. The central elements of Badiou's philosophy only make sense when Being and Event is read through the corrective prism of its sequel, Logics of Worlds, published nearly twenty years later. At the same time as presenting the only complete overview of Badiou's philosophical project, this book is also the first to draw out the central component of Badiou's ontology: indifference. Concentrating on its use across the core elements Being and Event-the void, the multiple, the set and the event-Watkin demonstrates that no account of Badiou's ontology is complete unless it accepts that Badiou's philosophy is primarily a presentation of indifferent being. Badiou and Indifferent Being provides a detailed and lively section by section reading of Badiou's foundational work. It is a seminal source text for all Badiou readers.

In recent years there have been a number of books-both anthologies and monographs-that have focused on the Liar Paradox and, more generally, on the semantic paradoxes, either offering proposed treatments to those paradoxes or critically evaluating ones that occupy logical space. At the same time, there are a number of people who do great work in philosophy, who have various semantic, logical, metaphysical and/or epistemological commitments that suggest that they should say something about the Liar Paradox, yet who have said very little, if anything, about that paradox or about the extant projects involving it. The purpose of this volume is to afford those philosophers the opportunity to address what might be described as reflections on the Liar.

The term "fuzzy logic" (FL), as it is understood in this book, stands for all aspects of representing and manipulating knowledge based on the rejection of the most fundamental principle of classical logic: the principle of bivalence. According to this principle, each declarative sentence is required to be either true or false. In fuzzy logic, these classical truth values are not abandoned. However, additional, intermediary truth values between true and false are allowed, which are interpreted as degrees of truth. This opens a new way of thinking-thinking in terms of degrees rather than absolutes. For example, it led to the definition of a new category of sets, referred to as fuzzy sets, in which membership is a matter of degree. The book examines the genesis and development of fuzzy logic. It surveys the prehistory of fuzzy logic and inspects circumstances that eventually lead to the emergence of fuzzy logic. The book explores in detail the development of propositional, predicate, and other calculi that admit degrees of truth, which are known as fuzzy logic in the narrow sense. Fuzzy logic in the broad sense, whose primary aim is to utilize degrees of truth for emulating common-sense human reasoning in natural language, is scrutinized as well. The book also examines principles for developing mathematics based on fuzzy logic and provides overviews of areas in which this has been done most effectively. It also presents a detailed survey of established and prospective applications of fuzzy logic in various areas of human affairs, and provides an assessment of the significance of fuzzy logic as a new paradigm.

We live an information-soaked existence - information pours into our lives through television, radio, books, and of course, the Internet. Some say we suffer from 'infoglut'. But what is information? The concept of 'information' is a profound one, rooted in mathematics, central to whole branches of science, yet with implications on every aspect of our everyday lives: DNA provides the information to create us; we learn through the information fed to us; we relate to each other through information transfer - gossip, lectures, reading. Information is not only a mathematically powerful concept, but its critical role in society raises wider ethical issues: who owns information? Who controls its dissemination? Who has access to information? Luciano Floridi, a philosopher of information, cuts across many subjects, from a brief look at the mathematical roots of information - its definition and measurement in 'bits'- to its role in genetics (we are information), and its social meaning and value. He ends by considering the ethics of information, including issues of ownership, privacy, and accessibility; copyright and open source. For those unfamiliar with its precise meaning and wide applicability as a philosophical concept, 'information' may seem a bland or mundane topic. Those who have studied some science or philosophy or sociology will already be aware of its centrality and richness. But for all readers, whether from the humanities or sciences, Floridi gives a fascinating and inspirational introduction to this most fundamental of ideas. ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable.

Generality is a key value in scientific discourses and practices. Throughout history, it has received a variety of meanings and of uses. This collection of original essays aims to inquire into this diversity. Through case studies taken from the history of mathematics, physics and the life sciences, the book provides evidence of different ways of understanding the general in various contexts. It aims at showing how collectives have valued generality and how they have worked with specific types of "general" entities, procedures, and arguments. The books connects history and philosophy of mathematics and the sciences at the intersection of two of the most fruitful contemporary lines of research: historical epistemology, in which values (e.g. "objectivity", "accuracy") are studied from a historical viewpoint; and the philosophy of scientific practice, in which conceptual developments are seen as embedded in networks of social, instrumental, and textual practices. Each chapter provides a self-contained case-study, with a clear exposition of the scientific content at stake. The collection covers a wide range of scientific domains - with an emphasis on mathematics - and historical periods. It thus allows a comparative perspective which suggests a non-linear pattern for a history of generality. The introductory chapter spells out the key issues and points to the connections between the chapters.