Karl Weierstrass (1815-1897) was among the leading mathematical figure of the 19th century, a man who had a decisive influence on the way we view analysis today. The centrepiece of this book is the reproduction of a photo album given to Weierstrass in 1885 as a 70th birthday present. The album, which lay hidden in a Berlin museum for over 70 years, contains the portraits of more than 300 students, friends and colleagues from all over Europe, and forms an extraordinary document of the admiration and appreciation shown to him. In an accompanying text, Reinhard Bolling gives interesting details of Weierstrass' life, the lives of those involved in the preparations for his birthday celebrations, and the story of how the album came about."

Wissenschaft und insbesondere die Naturwissenschaften haben heute meist mit "Messen," das heisst mit der quantitativen Erfassung der Wirklichkeit zu tun. Das Eigentliche, die "Qualitat" der Dinge, entzieht sich jedoch diesem technokratischen Zugriff. Die Position der Wissenschaft im Spannungsfeld zwischen den Polen Quantitas und Qualitas in Geschichte und Gegenwart auszuleuchten, ist das Anliegen der Beitrage dieses Bandes. Sie fuhren vor Augen, dass die Wissenschaftskonzeptionen des Altertums und des Mittelalters noch weitgehend qualitativ orientiert waren, und zeigen, wie diese in den verschiedenen Naturwissenschaften durch das neuzeitliche quantitativmessende Paradigma abgelost wurden und welche Probleme es dabei zu bewaltigen galt."

Die Tatsache, dass die Wissenschaft in immer zahlreichere Lebensbereiche eingreift, hat sie in den letzten Jahren vermehrt ins Rampenlicht des oeffentlichen Bewusstseins treten lassen und dazu gefuhrt, dass politische, wirtschaftliche und gesellschaftliche Krafte ihre Autonomie in Frage stellen. Diese aktuelle Diskussion zu bereichern, ist das Anliegen dieses Bandes. Vertreter verschiedener Fachrichtungen untersuchen darin anhand konkreter Fallstudien, wie sich das Verhaltnis zwischen Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft vom Mittelalter bis in die Gegenwart entwickelte. Sie zeigen, dass Wissenschaft zu keiner Zeit in einem gesellschaftlichen Vakuum betrieben wurde - und geben damit wertvolle Denkanstoesse fur die zukunftige Gestaltung dieser konflikttrachtigen Beziehung. Aus dem Inhalt: - Wissenschaft an den Universitaten des Mittelalters - Der Philosoph im 17. Jahrhundert. Selbstbild und gesellschaftliche Stellung - Wissenschaft und Sozietatsbewegung im 18. Jahrhundert - The Industrial Revolution and the Growth of Science - Fortschritt durch Wissenschaft. Die Universitaten im 19. Jahrhundert - Physik und Physiker im Dritten Reich - Biologie und politische Macht - Wissenschaft im heutigen Europa: Aussichten und Probleme.

How has computer science changed mathematical thinking? In this first ever comprehensive survey of the subject for popular science readers, Arturo Sangalli explains how computers have brought a new practicality to mathematics and mathematical applications. By using fuzzy logic and related concepts, programmers have been able to sidestep the traditional and often cumbersome search for perfect mathematical solutions to embrace instead solutions that are "good enough." If mathematicians want their work to be relevant to the problems of the modern world, Sangalli shows, they must increasingly recognize "the importance of being fuzzy."

As Sangalli explains, fuzzy logic is a technique that allows computers to work with imprecise terms--to answer questions with "maybe" rather than just "yes" and "no." The practical implications of this flexible type of mathematical thinking are remarkable. Japanese programmers have used fuzzy logic to develop the city of Sendai's unusually energy-efficient and smooth-running subway system--one that does not even require drivers. Similar techniques have been used in fields as diverse as medical diagnosis, image understanding by robots, the engineering of automatic transmissions, and the forecasting of currency exchange rates. Sangalli also explores in his characteristically clear and engaging manner the limits of classical computing, reviewing many of the central ideas of Turing and Godel. He shows us how "genetic algorithms" can solve problems by an evolutionary process in which chance plays a fundamental role. He introduces us to "neural networks," which recognize ill-defined patterns without an explicit set of rules--much as a dog can be trained to scent drugs without ever having an exact definition of "drug." Sangalli argues that even though "fuzziness" and related concepts are often compared to human thinking, they can be understood only through mathematics--but the math he uses in the book is straightforward and easy to grasp.

Of equal appeal to specialists and the general reader, "The Importance of Being Fuzzy" reveals how computer science is changing both the nature of mathematical practice and the shape of the world around us.

1m Zusammenhang mit Vorarbeiten zu einer Biographie uber Heinz Hopf sind wir vor einigen Jahren im Archiv des Schweizerischen Schulrates auf bisher unbekannte Dokumente aus dem Jahre 1930 gestossen, wel- che die N achfolgeregelung von Hermann Weyl an der ETH betreffen und die in mehrfacher Hinsicht Interesse verdienen. Dies hat uns veran- lasst, an der ETH systematisch nach weiteren Dokumenten zu Hermann Weyl und zur Mathematik an der ETH aus der Zeit seiner Tiitigkeit in Zurich zu suchen. Versehen mit einem Rahmentext veroffentlichen wir hier eine Zusammenstellung dieser Dokumente, die bis anhin nur schwer oder uberhaupt nicht zugiinglich waren. Hermann Weyl bezeichnet im Ruckblick die 17 Jahre seiner Tatigkeit in Zurich als die "wohl wichtigsten und produktivsten" seines Lebens. In der Tat sind von ihm zwischen 1913 und 1930 acht Bucher und rund siebzig Arbeiten erschienen. In Zurich erreichten ihn auch zahlreiche Berufun- gen aus Deutschland und den USA. 1m Ruckblick spricht er von ihnen als von der "schlimmste[n] Plage" wiihrend dieser Zeit. Es schien uns eine reizvolle Aufgabe zu sein, die iiusseren Lebensumstiinde Hermann Weyls in Zurich zu verfolgen, die ihm eine so erfolgreiche Tiitigkeit ermoglicht haben. Die aufgefundenen Dokumente fugen sich dariiber hinaus auch zu einer Darstellung der personellen Entwicklung der Mathematik (und der theoretischen Physik) an der ETH in den Jahren 1913 bis 1930.

This radical, profoundly scholarly book explores the purposes and nature of proof in a range of historical settings. It overturns the view that the first mathematical proofs were in Greek geometry and rested on the logical insights of Aristotle by showing how much of that view is an artefact of nineteenth-century historical scholarship. It documents the existence of proofs in ancient mathematical writings about numbers and shows that practitioners of mathematics in Mesopotamian, Chinese and Indian cultures knew how to prove the correctness of algorithms, which are much more prominent outside the limited range of surviving classical Greek texts that historians have taken as the paradigm of ancient mathematics. It opens the way to providing the first comprehensive, textually based history of proof.

This introduction to the philosophy of mathematics focuses on contemporary debates in an important and central area of philosophy. The reader is taken on a fascinating and entertaining journey through some intriguing mathematical and philosophical territory, including such topics as the realism/anti-realism debate in mathematics, mathematical explanation, the limits of mathematics, the significance of mathematical notation, inconsistent mathematics and the applications of mathematics. Each chapter has a number of discussion questions and recommended further reading from both the contemporary literature and older sources. Very little mathematical background is assumed and all of the mathematics encountered is clearly introduced and explained using a wide variety of examples. The book is suitable for an undergraduate course in philosophy of mathematics and, more widely, for anyone interested in philosophy and mathematics.

Das Unendliche hat wie keine andere Frage von jeher so tief das Gemut der Menschen bewegt," das Unendliche hat wie kaum eine andere Idee auf den Verstand so an- regend und fruchtbar gewirkt," das Unendliche ist aber auch wie kein anderer Begriff so der Aufklarung bedurftig. HILBERT [226, p. 163] Etwas mehr als 100 Jahre sind vergangen, seit in den Mathemati- schen Annalen der sechste und letzte Teil von CANTORS fundamenta- ler Arbeit UEber unendliche lineare Punktmannichfaltigkeiten erschie- nen ist. Damit war die Mengenlehre geboren und mit ihr eine prinzipiell neue Auffassung des Unendlichen in der Mathematik, verkoerpert in CANTORS Theorie der transfiniten Zahlen. Diese Theo- rie hat HILBERT als "die bewundernswerteste Blute mathematischen Geistes und uberhaupt eine der hoechsten Leistungen rein verstandes- massiger menschlicher Tatigkeit" bezeichnet. Anfangs unbeachtet oder abgelehnt, zu Ende des vorigen Jahrhunderts zunehmend anerkannt und verwendet, durch die Ent- deckung der Antinomien erneut erschuttert, ist die Mengenlehre in ihrer heutigen axiomatisierten Gestalt eines der Fundamente der Mathematik. Die Tatsache, dass alle mathematischen Begriffe auf mengentheoretische Begriffe zuruckgefuhrt werden koennen, hat ei- nige Autoren sogar zu der Behauptung veranlasst, die gesamte Ma- thematik sei letztendlich mit der Mengenlehre identisch. Wenn uns allerdings eine solche Ansicht als eine ungerechtfertigte UEberbeto- nung des Formalen gegenuber dem Inhaltlichen erscheint, so ist doch unbestritten, dass die mengentheoretische Durchdringung der Mathematik neben der Entstehung des strukturellen Denkens und der Verwendung der axiomatischen Methode ein Wesenszug der mo- dernen Mathematik ist. Das hat in zahlreichen Landern bis in den Schulunterricht hinein gewirkt.

Gerade heute, wo sich die Aufmerksamkeit der fuhrenden Philosophen, Logiker und Mathematiker erneut auf die Grundlagen der systematisch-deduktiven Mathematik richtet, ist dieses Buch von zeitnaher und tiefer Bedeutung."

This collection of specially-commissioned essays by leading scholars presents new research on Isaac Newton and his main philosophical interlocutors and critics. The essays analyze Newton's relation to his contemporaries, especially Barrow, Descartes, Leibniz and Locke, and discuss the ways in which a broad range of figures, including Hume, Maclaurin, Maupertuis, and Kant, reacted to his thought. The wide range of topics discussed includes the laws of nature, the notion of force, the relation of mathematics to nature, Newton's argument for universal gravitation, his attitude toward philosophical empiricism, his use of fluxions, his approach toward measurement problems, and his concept of absolute motion, together with new interpretations of Newton's matter theory. The volume concludes with an extended essay that analyzes the changes in physics wrought by Newton's Principia. A substantial introduction and bibliography provide essential reference guides.

Zum Anlass des 100. Geburtstages der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung erscheint diese Festschrift, bestehend aus neunzehn Beitragen, in denen anerkannte Fachwissenschaftler die Entwicklung ihres jeweiligen mathematischen Fachgebietes beschreiben und dabei auch kritische Ruckschau auf die Geschichte der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung seit ihrer Grundung 1890 halten. Insbesondere der erste Beitrag setzt sich intensiv mit der Historie der Mathematik und der Mathematiker im Dritten Reich auseinander."Mit diesem Band wird ein wichtiger Beitrag zur bisher wenig entwickelten Geschichtsschreibung der neueren Mathematik geleistet. (R. Siegmund-Schultze in "Deutsche Literatur-Zeitung" 1,2/1992, Bd. 113)

This Handbook explores the history of mathematics under a series of themes which raise new questions about what mathematics has been and what it has meant to practice it. It addresses questions of who creates mathematics, who uses it, and how. A broader understanding of mathematical practitioners naturally leads to a new appreciation of what counts as a historical source. Material and oral evidence is drawn upon as well as an unusual array of textual sources. Further, the ways in which people have chosen to express themselves are as historically meaningful as the contents of the mathematics they have produced. Mathematics is not a fixed and unchanging entity. New questions, contexts, and applications all influence what counts as productive ways of thinking. Because the history of mathematics should interact constructively with other ways of studying the past, the contributors to this book come from a diverse range of intellectual backgrounds in anthropology, archaeology, art history, philosophy, and literature, as well as history of mathematics more traditionally understood.
The thirty-six self-contained, multifaceted chapters, each written by a specialist, are arranged under three main headings: 'Geographies and Cultures', 'Peoples and Practices', and 'Interactions and Interpretations'. Together they deal with the mathematics of 5000 years, but without privileging the past three centuries, and an impressive range of periods and places with many points of cross-reference between chapters. The key mathematical cultures of North America, Europe, the Middle East, India, and China are all represented here as well as areas which are not often treated in mainstream history of mathematics, such as Russia, the Balkans, Vietnam, and South America. This Handbook will be a vital reference for graduates and researchers in mathematics, historians of science, and general historians.

Archytas of Tarentum is one of the three most important philosophers in the Pythagorean tradition, a prominent mathematician, who gave the first solution to the famous problem of doubling the cube, an important music theorist, and the leader of a powerful Greek city-state. He is famous for sending a trireme to rescue Plato from the clutches of the tyrant of Syracuse, Dionysius II, in 361 BC. This 2005 study was the first extensive enquiry into Archytas' work in any language. It contains original texts, English translations and a commentary for all the fragments of his writings and for all testimonia concerning his life and work. In addition there are introductory essays on Archytas' life and writings, his philosophy, and the question of authenticity. Carl A. Huffman presents an interpretation of Archytas' significance both for the Pythagorean tradition and also for fourth-century Greek thought, including the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle.

Paolo Mancosu provides an original investigation of historical and systematic aspects of the notions of abstraction and infinity and their interaction. A familiar way of introducing concepts in mathematics rests on so-called definitions by abstraction. An example of this is Hume's Principle, which introduces the concept of number by stating that two concepts have the same number if and only if the objects falling under each one of them can be put in one-one correspondence. This principle is at the core of neo-logicism. In the first two chapters of the book, Mancosu provides a historical analysis of the mathematical uses and foundational discussion of definitions by abstraction up to Frege, Peano, and Russell. Chapter one shows that abstraction principles were quite widespread in the mathematical practice that preceded Frege's discussion of them and the second chapter provides the first contextual analysis of Frege's discussion of abstraction principles in section 64 of the Grundlagen. In the second part of the book, Mancosu discusses a novel approach to measuring the size of infinite sets known as the theory of numerosities and shows how this new development leads to deep mathematical, historical, and philosophical problems. The final chapter of the book explore how this theory of numerosities can be exploited to provide surprisingly novel perspectives on neo-logicism.

Gottlob Frege (1848 1925) was unquestionably one of the most important philosophers of all time. He trained as a mathematician, and his work in philosophy started as an attempt to provide an explanation of the truths of arithmetic, but in the course of this attempt he not only founded modern logic but also had to address fundamental questions in the philosophy of language and philosophical logic. Frege is generally seen (along with Russell and Wittgenstein) as one of the fathers of the analytic method, which dominated philosophy in English-speaking countries for most of the twentieth century. His work is studied today not just for its historical importance but also because many of his ideas are still seen as relevant to current debates in the philosophies of logic, language, mathematics and the mind. The Cambridge Companion to Frege provides a route into this lively area of research.

This book is an attempt to change our thinking about thinking. Anna Sfard undertakes this task convinced that many long-standing, seemingly irresolvable quandaries regarding human development originate in ambiguities of the existing discourses on thinking. Standing on the shoulders of Vygotsky and Wittgenstein, the author defines thinking as a form of communication. The disappearance of the time-honoured thinking-communicating dichotomy is epitomised by Sfard's term, commognition, which combines communication with cognition. The commognitive tenet implies that verbal communication with its distinctive property of recursive self-reference may be the primary source of humans' unique ability to accumulate the complexity of their action from one generation to another. The explanatory power of the commognitive framework and the manner in which it contributes to our understanding of human development is illustrated through commognitive analysis of mathematical discourse accompanied by vignettes from mathematics classrooms.

Matrices offer some of the most powerful techniques in modem mathematics. In the social sciences they provide fresh insights into an astonishing variety of topics. Dominance matrices can show how power struggles in offices or committees develop; Markov chains predict how fast news or gossip will spread in a village; permutation matrices illuminate kinship structures in tribal societies. All these invaluable techniques and many more are explained clearly and simply in this wide-ranging book. Originally published in 1986. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback and hardcover editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.

Professor Morgenstern's deep interests in economic time series and problems of measurement are represented by path-breaking articles devoted to the application of modern statistical analysis to temporal economic data. Originally published in 1967. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback and hardcover editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.

Professor Morgenstern's deep interests in economic time series and problems of measurement are represented by path-breaking articles devoted to the application of modern statistical analysis to temporal economic data. Originally published in 1967. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback and hardcover editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.

A guide to the practical art of plausible reasoning, this book has relevance in every field of intellectual activity. Professor Polya, a world-famous mathematician from Stanford University, uses mathematics to show how hunches and guesses play an important part in even the most rigorously deductive science. He explains how solutions to problems can be guessed at; good guessing is often more important than rigorous deduction in finding correct solutions. Vol. I, on Induction and Analogy in Mathematics, covers a wide variety of mathematical problems, revealing the trains of thought that lead to solutions, pointing out false bypaths, discussing techniques of searching for proofs. Problems and examples challenge curiosity, judgment, and power of invention.

A guide to the practical art of plausible reasoning, this book has relevance in every field of intellectual activity. Professor Polya, a world-famous mathematician from Stanford University, uses mathematics to show how hunches and guesses play an important part in even the most rigorously deductive science. He explains how solutions to problems can be guessed at; good guessing is often more important than rigorous deduction in finding correct solutions. Vol. II, on Patterns of Plausible Inference, attempts to develop a logic of plausibility. What makes some evidence stronger and some weaker? How does one seek evidence that will make a suspected truth more probable? These questions involve philosophy and psychology as well as mathematics.

A book that finally demystifies Newton's experiments in alchemy When Isaac Newton's alchemical papers surfaced at a Sotheby's auction in 1936, the quantity and seeming incoherence of the manuscripts were shocking. No longer the exemplar of Enlightenment rationality, the legendary physicist suddenly became "the last of the magicians." Newton the Alchemist unlocks the secrets of Newton's alchemical quest, providing a radically new understanding of the uncommon genius who probed nature at its deepest levels in pursuit of empirical knowledge. In this evocative and superbly written book, William Newman blends in-depth analysis of newly available texts with laboratory replications of Newton's actual experiments in alchemy. He does not justify Newton's alchemical research as part of a religious search for God in the physical world, nor does he argue that Newton studied alchemy to learn about gravitational attraction. Newman traces the evolution of Newton's alchemical ideas and practices over a span of more than three decades, showing how they proved fruitful in diverse scientific fields. A precise experimenter in the realm of "chymistry," Newton put the riddles of alchemy to the test in his lab. He also used ideas drawn from the alchemical texts to great effect in his optical experimentation. In his hands, alchemy was a tool for attaining the material benefits associated with the philosopher's stone and an instrument for acquiring scientific knowledge of the most sophisticated kind. Newton the Alchemist provides rare insights into a man who was neither Enlightenment rationalist nor irrational magus, but rather an alchemist who sought through experiment and empiricism to alter nature at its very heart.

Information is a central topic in computer science, cognitive science, and philosophy. In spite of its importance in the "information age," there is no consensus on what information is, what makes it possible, and what it means for one medium to carry information about another. Drawing on ideas from mathematics, computer science, and philosophy, this book addresses the definition and place of information in society. The authors, observing that information flow is possible only within a connected distribution system, provide a mathematically rigorous, philosophically sound foundation for a science of information. They illustrate their theory by applying it to a wide range of phenomena, from file transfer to DNA, from quantum mechanics to speech act theory.

Alfred Tarski, one of the greatest logicians of all time, is widely thought of as 'the man who defined truth'. His mathematical work on the concepts of truth and logical consequence are cornerstones of modern logic, influencing developments in philosophy, linguistics and computer science. Tarski was a charismatic teacher and zealous promoter of his view of logic as the foundation of all rational thought, a bon-vivant and a womanizer, who played the 'great man' to the hilt. Born in Warsaw in 1901 to Jewish parents, he changed his name and converted to Catholicism, but was never able to obtain a professorship in his home country. A fortuitous trip to the United States at the outbreak of war saved his life and turned his career around, even while it separated him from his family for years. By the war's end he was established as a professor of mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley. There Tarski built an empire in logic and methodology that attracted students and distinguished researchers from all over the world. From the cafes of Warsaw and Vienna to the mountains and deserts of California, this first full length biography places Tarski in the social, intellectual and historical context of his times and presents a frank, vivid picture of a personally and professionally passionate man, interlaced with an account of his major scientific achievements.