The equation of state was originally developed for ideal gases, and proved central to the development of early molecular and atomic physics. Increasingly sophisticated equations of state have been developed to take into account molecular interactions, quantization, relativistic effects, etc.

Extreme conditions of matter are encountered both in nature and in the laboratory, for example in the centres of stars, in relativistic collisions of heavy nuclei, in inertial confinement fusion (where a temperature of 10"9" K and a pressure of up to a billion atmospheres can be achieved). A sound knowledge of the equation of state is a prerequisite for understanding processes at very high temperatures and pressures, as noted in some recent developments.

This book presents a detailed pedagogical account of the equation of state and its applications in several important and fast-growing topics in theoretical physics, chemistry and engineering.

This book is a collection of papers dedicated to Professor Dr. Krzysztof Wilman 'ski onthe occasionof his 70thbirthday. The bookcontains25 cont- butions of his friends and colleagues. He met the invited authors at di?erent stagesofhisscienti?ccareerofalmost50yearssothatthecontributionscover a wide range of ?elds stemming from continuum mechanics. This happened at numerous universities and research institutes where he both taught and did his excellent research work, e. g. * the University of Lod ' ' z, Poland, where he studied Civil Engineering and did his diploma work onElastic-plastic thermal stresses in a thin ring and where he graduated with his PhD-work in the ?eld of Continuous Models of Discrete Systems, * theInstituteofFundamentalTechnologicalResearchofthePolishAcademy of Sciences in Warsaw, where he got his habilitation in the ?eld Non- cal Continuum Mechanics and where he was the head of the Research Group Continuum Thermodynamics. He collaborated with W. Fiszdon, L. Turski, Cz. Wozniak, H. Zorski and others on the topics axiomatic and kinetic foundations of continuumthermodynamics, theory of mixtures, phase transformations in solids, * theJohnsHopkinsUniversityinBaltimore,US,wherehe workedtogether, e. g. with C. Truesdell, J. Ericksen and W. Williams, on axiomatic and kinetic foundations of continuum thermodynamics, * the College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq, where he was a Visiting Professor and taught many courses, * theUniversityofPaderbornandtheTechnicalUniversityBerlin,Germany, wherehe had an Alexander von Humboldt Stipend andcontractsasa V- iting Professor (works on a model of crystallizing polymers, on a nonlocal thermodynamicmodelofplasmasandelectrolytesandonmartensiticphase transformations), * the Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin (Institute for Advanced Studies), G- many,whereheworkedtogetherwithe. g. I.

The ability to understand and control the unique properties of interfaces has created an entirely new field of magnetism, with profound impact in technology and serving as the basis for a revolution in electronics. Our understanding of the physics of magnetic nanostructures has also advanced significantly. This rapid development has generated a need for a comprehensive treatment that can serve as an introduction to the field for those entering it from diverse fields, but which will also serve as a timely overview for those already working in this area. The four-volume work Ultra-Thin Magnetic Structures aims to fulfill this dual need. The original two volumes now available once more are An Introduction to the Electronic, Magnetic and Structural Properties (this volume) and "Measurement Techniques and Novel Magnetic Properties." Two new volumes, "Fundamentals of Nanomagnetism" and "Applications of Nanomagnetism," extend and complete this comprehensive work by presenting the foundations of spintronics."

This monographdeals with metastable states in amorphoussemiconductors- ma- rials which lack long-range periodicity in the atoms' positions, which are in th- modynamic nonequilibrium and which, in addition, have several metastable states. Thesestates giverise tovariouspropertiesandeffects- namelya widerangeofp- toinduced changes and high photosensitivity and X-ray sensitivity - that are unique among solid-state semiconductors.Historically, amorphousselenium and seleni- based materials have played an important role in physics and technology, and they continue to do so. In these materials there exist inherent intermediate (metastable) states, structural and electronic in origin, which lead to interesting properties and effects different from those of their crystalline counterparts. In this volume, the metastable states and related effects are investigated in depth against the background of a detailed consideration of local atomic and electronic structure, and taking into account a wide range of light-induced effects. Although the rst publications on amorphous semiconductors date back to the early 1970s, studies of metastable states in these materials had not been analyzed systematically up to now, which led to erroneous ideas, even among specialists. In the present book, experimental investigations of metastable states are reported in detail for elemental selenium and selenium-based materials.

Solitons are a well-known and intriguing aspect of nonlinear behavior in a continuous system such as a fluid: a wave propagates through the medium without distortion. Liquid crystals are highly ordered systems without a rigid, long-range structure. Solitons in liquid crystals (sometimes referred to as "walls") have a wide variety of remarkable properties that are becoming important for practical applications such as electroluminescent display. This book, the first review of the subject to be published, contains not only surveys of the existing literature, but presents new results as well.

This book focuses on the assembly, organization and resultant collective dynamics of soft matter systems maintained away from equilibrium by an energy flux. Living matter is the ultimate example of such systems, which are comprised of different constituents on very different scales (ions, nucleic acids, proteins, cells). The result of their diverse interactions, maintained using the energy from physiological processes, is a fantastically well-organized and dynamic whole. This work describes results from minimal, biomimetic systems and primarily investigates membranes and active emulsions, as well as key aspects of both soft matter and non-equilibrium phenomena. It is shown that these minimal reconstitutions are already capable of a range of complex behaviour such as nonlinear electric responses, chemical communication and locomotion. These studies will bring us closer to a fundamental understanding of complex systems by reconstituting key aspects of their form and function in simple model systems. Further, they may also serve as the first technological steps towards artificial soft functional matter.

In the eighties, a group of theoretical physicists introduced several models for certain disordered systems, called "spin glasses". These models are simple and rather canonical random structures, that physicists studied by non-rigorous methods. They predicted spectacular behaviors, previously unknown in probability theory. They believe these behaviors occur in many models of considerable interest for several branches of science (statistical physics, neural networks and computer science). This book introduces in a rigorous manner this exciting new area to the mathematically minded reader. It requires no knowledge whatsoever of any physics, and contains proofs in complete detail of much of what is rigorously known on spin glasses at the time of writing.

The ability to understand and control the unique properties of interfaces has created an entirely new field of magnetism which already has a profound impact in technology and is providing the basis for a revolution in electronics. The last decade has seen dramatic progress in the development of magnetic devices for information technology but also in the basic understanding of the physics of magnetic nanostructures. This volume describes thin film magnetic properties and methods for characterising thin film structure topics that underpin the present 'spintronics' revolution in which devices are based on combined magnetic materials and semiconductors. Volume IV deals with the fundamentals of spintronics: magnetoelectronic materials, spin injection and detection, micromagnetics and the development of magnetic random access memory based on GMR and tunnel junction devices. Together these books provide readers with a comprehensive account of an exciting and rapidly developing field. The treatment is designed to be accessible both to newcomers and to experts already working in this field who would like to get a better understanding of this very diversified area of research.

This coherent monograph describes and explains quantum phenomena in two-dimensional (2D) electron systems with extremely strong internal interactions, which cannot be described by the conventional Fermi-liquid approach. The central physical objects considered are the 2D Coulomb liquid, of which the average Coulomb interaction energy per electron is much higher than the mean kinetic energy, and the Wigner solid. The text provides a new and comprehensive review of the remarkable properties of Coulomb liquids and solids formed on the free surface of liquid helium and other interfaces. This book is intended for graduate students and researchers in the fields of quantum liquids, electronic properties of 2D systems, and solid-state physics. It includes different levels of sophistication so as to be useful for both theorists and experimentalists. The presentation is largely self-contained, and also describes some instructive examples that will be of general interest to solid-state physicists.

Quantum systems with many degrees of freedom are inherently difficult to describe and simulate quantitatively. The space of possible states is, in general, exponentially large in the number of degrees of freedom such as the number of particles it contains. Standard digital high-performance computing is generally too weak to capture all the necessary details, such that alternative quantum simulation devices have been proposed as a solution. Artificial neural networks, with their high non-local connectivity between the neuron degrees of freedom, may soon gain importance in simulating static and dynamical behavior of quantum systems. Particularly promising candidates are neuromorphic realizations based on analog electronic circuits which are being developed to capture, e.g., the functioning of biologically relevant networks. In turn, such neuromorphic systems may be used to measure and control real quantum many-body systems online. This thesis lays an important foundation for the realization of quantum simulations by means of neuromorphic hardware, for using quantum physics as an input to classical neural nets and, in turn, for using network results to be fed back to quantum systems. The necessary foundations on both sides, quantum physics and artificial neural networks, are described, providing a valuable reference for researchers from these different communities who need to understand the foundations of both.

This book assembles both theory and application in this field, to interest experimentalists and theoreticians alike. Part 1 is concerned with the theory and computing of non-linear optical (NLO) properties while Part 2 reviews the latest developments in experimentation. This book will be invaluable to researchers and students in academia and industry, particularlrly to anyone involved in materials science, theoretical and computational chemistry, chemical physics, and molecular physics.

Most interesting and difficult problems in equilibrium statistical mechanics concern models which exhibit phase transitions. For graduate students and more experienced researchers this book provides an invaluable reference source of approximate and exact solutions for a comprehensive range of such models. Part I contains background material on classical thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, together with a classification and survey of lattice models. The geometry of phase transitions is described and scaling theory is used to introduce critical exponents and scaling laws. An introduction is given to finite-size scaling, conformal invariance and Schramm-Loewner evolution. Part II contains accounts of classical mean-field methods. The parallels between Landau expansions and catastrophe theory are discussed and Ginzburg--Landau theory is introduced. The extension of mean-field theory to higher-orders is explored using the Kikuchi--Hijmans--De Boer hierarchy of approximations. In Part III the use of algebraic, transformation and decoration methods to obtain exact system information is considered. This is followed by an account of the use of transfer matrices for the location of incipient phase transitions in one-dimensionally infinite models and for exact solutions for two-dimensionally infinite systems. The latter is applied to a general analysis of eight-vertex models yielding as special cases the two-dimensional Ising model and the six-vertex model. The treatment of exact results ends with a discussion of dimer models. In Part IV series methods and real-space renormalization group transformations are discussed. The use of the De Neef-Enting finite-lattice method is described in detail and applied to the derivation of series for a number of model systems, in particular for the Potts model. The use of Pad\'e, differential and algebraic approximants to locate and analyze second- and first-order transitions is described. The realization of the ideas of scaling theory by the renormalization group is presented together with treatments of various approximation schemes including phenomenological renormalization. Part V of the book contains a collection of mathematical appendices intended to minimise the need to refer to other mathematical sources.

This book presents the transport studies of topological insulator thin films grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Through band structure engineering, the ideal topological insulators, (Bi1 xSbx)2Te3 ternary alloys, are successfully fabricated, which possess truly insulating bulk and tunable conducting surface states. Further transport measurements on these ternary alloys reveal a disentanglement between the magnetoelectric and thermoelectric properties. In magnetically doped topological insulators, the fascinating quantum anomalous Hall effect was experimentally observed for the first time. Moreover, the topology-driven magnetic quantum phase transition was Systematically controlled by varying the strength of the spin-orbital coupling. Readers will not only benefit from the description of the technique of transport measurements, but will also be inspired by the understanding of topological insulators.

This book continues the biannual series of conference proceedings, which has become a classical reference resource in traffic and granular research alike, and addresses the latest developments at the intersection of physics, engineering and computational science. These involve complex systems, in which multiple simple agents, be they vehicles or particles, give rise to surprising and fascinating phenomena. The contributions collected in these proceedings cover several research fields, all of which deal with transport. Topics include highway, pedestrian and internet traffic; granular matter; biological transport; transport networks; data acquisition; data analysis and technological applications. Different perspectives, i.e., modeling, simulations, experiments, and phenomenological observations are considered.

Advanced spectroscopic techniques allow the probing of very small systems and very fast phenomena, conditions that can be considered "extreme" at the present status of our experimentation and knowledge. Quantum dots, nanocrystals and single molecules are examples of the former and events on the femtosecond scale examples of the latter. The purpose of this book is to examine the realm of phenomena of such extreme type and the techniques that permit their investigations.

Each author has developed a coherent section of the program

starting at a somewhat fundamental level and ultimately reaching the frontier of knowledge in the field in a systematic and didactic fashion. The formal lectures are complemented by additional seminars.

This book summarizes the experimental evidence and modern classical and theoretical approaches in understanding the vitreous state, from structural problems, over equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermodynamics, to statistical physics. Glasses, and especially silicate glasses, are only the best known representatives of this particular physical state of matter. Other typical representatives include organic polymer glasses, and many other easily vitrifying organic and inorganic substances, technically important materials, amidst them vitreous water and vitrified aqueous solutions, and also many metallic alloy systems. Some of these systems only form glasses under particular conditions, e.g. through ultra-rapid cooling. This book describes the properties and the formation of both every-day technical glasses and especially of such more exotic forms of vitreous matter.
Itis a unique source of knowledge and new ideas for materials scientists, engineers and researchers working on condensed matter. The new edition emphasizes latest experimental findings and modern theories, explaining the kinetics of glass formation, the relaxation and stabilization of glasses and their crystallization in terms of new models, derived from the framework of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. It shows how the properties of common technical glasses, window glass, or the vitreous ice kernel of comets can be used to develop a new understanding of the existence of matter in various, unusualforms. The described theories can even find application for the description of lasers and interesting unusual processes in the universe."

The interaction of electron beams with solid targets has been studied since the early part of the last century. Present interest is spurred on by the fundamental role played by the electron-solid interaction in - among other areas - scanning electron microscopy, electron-probe microanalysis and Auger electron spectroscopy. This book aims to investigate selected aspects of the interaction of electrons with matter (backscattering coefficient for bulk targets, absorption, backscattering and transmission for supported and unsupported thin films, implantation profiles, secondary electron emission and so on); to study the probabilistic laws of interaction of the individual electrons with the atoms (elastic and inelastic cross sections); to introduce the Monte Carlo method and its use for computing the macroscopic characteristics of the interaction processes. Each chapter compares theory, simulations and experimental data.

This Volume 44 of Advances in Solid State Physics contains the written versions of most of the invited lectures of the Spring Meeting of the Condensed Matter Physics section of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft held from March 8 to 12, 2004 in Regensburg, Germany. Many of the topical talks given at the numerous and very lively symposia are also included. They have covered extremely interesting and timely subjects. Thus the book truly reflects the status of the field of solid state physics in 2004, and indicates its importance, not only in Germany but also internationally.

In recent years there have been exciting developments in techniques for producing multilayered structures of different materials, often with thicknesses as small as only a few atomic layers. These artificial structures, known as superlattices, can either be grown with the layers stacked in an alternating fashion (the periodic case) or according to some other well-defined mathematical rule (the quasiperiodic case). This book describes research on the excitations (or wave-like behavior) of these materials, with emphasis on how the material properties are coupled to photons (the quanta of the light or the electromagnetic radiation) to produce mixed waves called polaritons.
.Clear and comprehensive account of polaritons in multilayered structures
.Covers both periodic and quasiperiodic superlattices
.Careful attention to theoretical developments and tools
.Invaluable guide for researchers in this field
.Shows developments from the basics to advanced topics

The purpose of 'Numerical Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous Media' is to provide a collection of recent contributions in the field of computational heat and mass transfer in porous media. The main benefit of the book is that it discusses the majority of the topics related to numerical transport phenomenon in engineering (including state-of-the-art and applications) and presents some of the most important theoretical and computational developments in porous media and transport phenomenon domain, providing a self-contained major reference that is appealing to both the scientists, researchers and the engineers. At the same time, these topics encounter of a variety of scientific and engineering disciplines, such as chemical, civil, agricultural, mechanical engineering, etc. The book is divided in several chapters that intend to be a resume of the current state of knowledge for benefit of professional colleagues.

Mechanical Properties of Single Molecules and Polymer Aggregates Rudiger Berger, Kurt Binder, Gregor Diezemann, Jurgen Gauss, Mark Helm, Katharina Landfester, Wolfgang Paul (Halle), Peter Virnau. Optical Properties of Individual Molecular Aggregates and Nano Particles Thomas Basche, Hans-Jurgen Butt, Gregor Diezemann, Jurgen Gauss, Klaus Mullen, Harald Paulsen, Carsten Sonnichsen, Rudolf Zentel. Structure Formation of Polymeric Building Blocks I: Self-assembly of Copolymers Kurt Binder, Holger Frey, Andreas Kilbinger (Univ. Fribourg), Ute Kolb, Michael Maskos (IMM Mainz), Wolfgang Paul (Univ. Halle), Hans Wolfgang Spiess. Structure Formation of Polymeric Building Blocks II: Complex Polymer Architectures Kurt Binder, Hans Jurgen Butt, Angelika Kuhnle, Klaus Mullen, Wolfgang Paul (Univ. Halle), Erwin Schmidt, Manfred Schmidt, Hans Wolfgang Spiess, Thomas Vilgis. Structure Formation of Polymeric Building Blocks III: Polymer Complexes in Biological Applications Kurt Kremer, Heiko Luhmann, Christine Peter, Friederike Schmid, Erwin Schmidt, Manfred Schmidt, Eva Sinner (Univ. of Natural Resources, Vienna), Tanja Weil (Univ. Ulm)."

"Fundamental Tests of Physics with Optically Trapped Microspheres "details experiments on studying the Brownian motion of an optically trapped microsphere with ultrahigh resolution and the cooling of its motion towards the quantum ground state.
Glass microspheres were trapped in water, air, and vacuum with optical tweezers; and a detection system that can monitor the position of a trapped microsphere with Angstrom spatial resolution and microsecond temporal resolution was developed to study the Brownian motion of a trapped microsphere in air over a wide range of pressures. The instantaneous velocity of a Brownian particle, in particular, was studied for the very first time, and the results provide direct verification of the Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution and the energy equipartition theorem for a Brownian particle. For short time scales, the ballistic regime of Brownian motion is observed, in contrast to the usual diffusive regime.
In vacuum, active feedback is used to cool the center-of-mass motion of an optically trapped microsphere from room temperature to a minimum temperature of about 1.5 mK. This is an important step toward studying the quantum behaviors of a macroscopic particle trapped in vacuum.

Advances in Quantum Methods and Applications in Chemistry, Physics, and Biology includes peer-reviewed contributions based on carefully selected presentations given at the 17th International Workshop on Quantum Systems in Chemistry, Physics, and Biology. New trends and state-of-the-art developments in the quantum theory of atomic and molecular systems, and condensed matter (including biological systems and nanostructures) are described by academics of international distinction.

The present volume 45 of Advances in Solid-State Physics contains the written versions of selected invited lectures from the spring meeting of the Arbeitskreis Festk rperphysik of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft in the World Year of Physics 2005, the Einstein Year, which was held from 4 - 11 March 2005 in Berlin, Germany. Many topical talks given at the numerous symposia are included. Most of these were organized collaboratively by several of the divisions of the Arbeitskreis.

The book presents, to some extent, the status of the field of solid-state physics in 2005 not only in Germany but also internationally. It is ''nanoscience'', namely the physics of quantum dots and wires, electrical transport, optical properties, spin transport in nanostructures, and magnetism on the nanoscale, that is of central interest to the physics community. Also, soft matter and biological systems are covered.

This book presents an overview of the most recent advances in nonlinear science. It provides a unified view of nonlinear properties in many different systems and highlights many new developments. While volume 1 concentrates on mathematical theory and computational techniques and challenges, which are essential for the study of nonlinear science, this second volume deals with nonlinear excitations in several fields. These excitations can be localized and transport energy and matter in the form of breathers, solitons, kinks or quodons with very different characteristics, which are discussed in the book. They can also transport electric charge, in which case they are known as polarobreathers or solectrons. Nonlinear excitations can influence function and structure in biology, as for example, protein folding. In crystals and other condensed matter, they can modify transport properties, reaction kinetics and interact with defects. There are also engineering applications in electric lattices, Josephson junction arrays, waveguide arrays, photonic crystals and optical fibers. Nonlinear excitations are inherent to Bose-Einstein Condensates, constituting an excellent benchmark for testing their properties and providing a pathway for future discoveries in fundamental physics.