I started working on membrane noise in 1967 with David Firth in the Department of Physiology at McGill University. I began writing this book in the summer of 1975 at Emory University under a grant from the National Library of Medicine. Part of the writing was also done at the Marine Biological Laboratory Library in Woods Hole and in the Library of the Stazione Zoologica in Naples. I wrote this book because in the intervening years membrane noise became a definable subdivision of membrane biophysics and seemed to deserve a uniform treatment in one volume. Not surprisingly, this turned out to be much more difficult than I had imagined and some areas of the subject that ought to be included have been left out, either for reasons of space or because of my own inability to keep up with all aspects of the field. This book is written for biologists interested in noise and for physicists and electrical engineers interested in biology. The first three chapters attempt to bring both groups to a common point of understanding of electronics and electrophysiology necessary to the study of noise and impedance in membranes. These chapters arose out of a course given over a period of six years to electrical engineers from the Georgia Institute of Technology and biologists from Emory University School of Medicine.

No mathematical theory can completely describe the complex world around us. Every theory is aimed at a certain class of phenomena, formulates their essential features, and disregards what is of minor importance. The theory meets its limits of applicability where a dis regarded influence becomes important. Thus, rigid-body dynamics describes in many cases the motion of actual bodies with high accu racy, but it fails to produce more than a few general statements in the case of impact, because elastic or anelastic deformation, no matter how local or how small, attains a dominating influence. For a long time mechanics of deformable bodies has been based upon Hooke's law - that is, upon thE" assumption of linear elasticity. It was well known that most engineering materials like metals, con crde, wood, soil, are not linearly elastic or, are so within limits too narrow to cover tne range of pl'actical intcrest. Nevertheless, almost all routine stress analysis is still based on Hooke T s law be cause of its simplicity. In the course of time engineers have become increasingly con scious of the importance of the anelastic behavior of many materials, and mathematical formulations have been attempted and applied to practical problems. Outstanding among them are the theories of ide ally plastic and of viscoelastic materials. While plastic behavior is essentially nonlinear (piecewise linear at best), viscoelasticity, like elasticity, permits a linear theory. This theory of linear visco elasticity is the subject of tbe present book."

On this, the dawning of a new age in high technology, man is seeking answers to increasingly complex problems. We are routinely launching reusable vehicles into space, designing and building computers with seemingly limitless powers, and developing sophisticated communications systems using laser technology, fiber optics, holography, etc., all of which require new and advanced materials. Polymer alloys continue to provide new solutions to the materials problems, and remain an area of ever increasing research. Polymer alloys are mu1ticomponent macromolecular systems. The components may be all on the same chain (as in block co polymers), on side chains (as in graft copolymers), or in different molecules (as in po1yb1ends and interpenetrating polymer networks). The variety of morphologies possible and the synergistic effects on ultimate properties continue to stimulate research on new polymer alloys. More and more studies on synthesis of new alloys, the kinetics and mecha nisms of their formation, and their characterization, are taking place, as well as studies on their processing and applications. This book presents the proceedings of the Symposium on Polymer Alloys, sponsored by the American Chemical Society's Division of OrganiC Coatings and Plastics Chemistry held at the 182nd meeting of the American Chemical Society in New York, in August, 1981. The most recent efforts of scientists and engineers from allover the world in this increasingly important field are presented in the following pages."

This volume contains an eclectic collection of 22 papers on liquid crystalline polymers presented at the Sixth Polymer Workshop, in the series sponsored by the European Science Foundation, entitled: 'Liquid Crystal Polymer Systems', in Gentofte, Denmark, 12-14 September 1983. Since a contribution to this volume was strictly voluntary, and in some cases represents a considerably expanded version of that which was presented, it is strictly speaking not correct to term this a 'proceedings'. A description of the aims and purposes of the European Science Foundation with respect to the polymer area has been presented in: Shell Polymers, Vol. 5, No.2, pp. 34-35, 1981. The papers given here represent a cross-section of current research interests in liquid crystalline polymers in the areas of theory, synthesis, characterization, structure-property relationships and applications. At least some of the current interest is motivated by attempts to practically exploit the novel properties of these materials in the developing tech nologies of high strength fibres and advanced materials for constructional purposes, but also for functional materials in the areas of information retrieval, electronics and opto-electronics applications. The editor wishes to thank all those involved for their courtesy and co-operation."

The subject matter of this volume has its roots in the early days of polymer chemistry when gun cotton and Parkesine were first developed. Indeed, its roots can ultimately be traced into anti quity, since, in commerce and daily life, man has always carried out reactions on polymers, e. g. in primitive dyeing and tanning operations. In more modern times Prof. Staudinger is commonly acknowledged as the investigator most responsible for the renais sance of interest in "polymer analogous" reactions. In recent years it has become apparent that the "black art" of conducting chemical reactions on macromolecules is an area which is amenable to basic scientific investigation. Examples of important developments which have come 'about, in part, as a result of this realization have been the advances in molecular biology (which may be rightly considered as the biochemistry of macromo lecules) and by such milestone achievements as solid phase pep tide synthesis and affinity chromatography. These few selected examples all have macromolecules (biological and synthetiC) in common. The stimulation to wide areas of scientific endeavor re sulting from these developments would undoubtedly have occurred. sooner, and certainly with much less difficulty, had the various investigators been aware of the problems attending attempts at performing reactions on polymers. The major purposes of this Advanced Studies Institute were threefold: 1."

Research on metal-containing polymers began in the early 1960's when several workers found that vinyl ferrocene and other vinylic transition metal TI -complexes would undergo polymerization under the same conditions as conventional organic monomers to form high polymers which incorporated a potentially reactive metal as an integral part of the polymer structures. Some of these materials could act as semi conductors and possessed one or two dimensional conductivity. Thus applications in electronics could be visualized immediately. Other workers found that reactions used to make simple metal chelates could be used to prepare polymers if the ligands were designed properly. As interest in homogeneous catalysts developed in the late 60's and early 70's, several investigators began binding homogeneous catalysts onto polymers, where the advantage of homogeneous catalysis - known reaction mechanisms and the advantage of heterogeneous catalysis - simplicity and ease of recovery of catalysts could both be obtained. Indeed the polymer matrix itself often enhanced the selectivity of the catalyst. The first symposium on Organometallic Polymers, held at the National Meeting of the American Chemical Society in September 1977, attracted a large number of scientists interested in this field, both established investigators and newcomers. Subsequent symposia in 1977, 1979, 1983, and 1987 have seen the field mature. Hundreds of papers and patents have been published."

The state-of-the-art in contemporary theoretical chemistry is presented in this 4-volume set with numerous contributions from the most highly regarded experts in their field. It provides a concise introduction and critical evaluation of theoretical approaches in relation to experimental evidence.

Biological and Synthetic Polymer Networks contains 36 papers selected from the papers presented at NETWORKS 86, the 8th Polymer Networks Group Meeting. NETWORKS 86 was held in Elsinore, Denmark, on 31 August 5 September 1986. A total of nine invited main lectures and 68 contributed papers were presented at the meeting. A wide range of important biological and synthetic materials consist of three-dimensional polymer networks. The properties range from very stiff structural materials to extremely flexible rubbery materials and gels. Most polymer networks are permanent networks held together by covalent bonds. Such networks are insoluble but they may swell considerably in good solvents. Polymer networks held together by ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds or so-called entanglements are of a more temporary nature. At long times they exhibit a tendency to flow, and they are soluble in good solvents. The paper by Professor Walther Burchard and his co-workers, 'Covalent, Thermoreversible and Entangled Networks: An Attempt at Comparison', serves as a general introduction to polymer networks. The book contains both theoretical and experimental papers on the formation, characterisation and properties of polymer networks. Two topics were given special sessions at the meeting, namely Biological Networks and Swelling of Polymer Networks.

At the beginning of this series of volumes on Color Chemistry, the editors pointed to a number of events that have served as stimuli for techno logical advances in the field, thus preventing dyestuff manufacturing from becoming what might otherwise be viewed by now as a 'sunset industry'. The volumes which followed have provided ample evidence for our belief that the field of colour chemistry is very much alive, though arguably in need of further stimulus. For instance, a viable approach to the design of new chromophores and to the design of metal-free acid, direct, and reactive dyes having fastness properties comparable to their metallized counterparts represent the kind of breakthroughs that would help ensure the continued success of this important field. While it must be acknowledged that serendipity 'smiled' on our discipline at its inception and has repeated the favor from time to time since then, few would argue against the proposition that most of the significant advances in the technology associated with any scientific discipline result from research designed to enhance our understanding of the fundamental causes for experimental observations, many of which are pursued because they are unexpected, intriguing and intellectually stimulating. Little reflection is required for one who knows the history of the dyestuff industry to realize that this is certainly true in the colour chemistry arena, as it was basic research that led to fiber-reactive dyes, dyes for high technology, and modern synthetic organic pigments."

Block copolymers represent an important class of multi-phase material, which have received very widespread attention, particularly since their successful commercial development in the mid-1960s. Much of the interest in these polymers has arisen because of their rather remarkable micro phase morphology and, hence, they have been the subject of extensive microstructural examination. In many respects, the quest for a comprehensive interpretation of their structure, both theoretically and experimentally, has not been generally matched by a corresponding enthusiasm for developing structure/property relationships in the context of their commercial application. Indeed, it has been left largely to the industrial companies involved in the development and utilization of these materials to fulfil this latter role. While it is generally disappointing that a much greater synergism does not exist between science and technology, it is especially sad in the case of block copolymers. Thus these materials offer an almost unique opportunity for the application of fundamental structural and property data to the interpretation of the properties of generally processed artefacts. Accordingly, in this book, the editor has drawn together an eminent group of research workers, with the specific intention of highlighting some of those aspects of the science and technology of block copolymers that are potentially important if further advances are to be made either in material formulation or utilization. For example, special consideration is given to the relationship between the flow properties of block copo lymers and their microstructure."

The aim of this book is, as its title suggests, to help sOilleone with little or no knowledge of what thermal analysis can do, to find out briefly what the subject is all about, to decide whether it will be of use to him or her, and to help in getting started on the more common techniques. Some of the less-common techniques are mentioned, but more specialized texts should be consulted before venturing into these areas. This book arose out of a set of notes prepared for courses on thermal analysis given at instrument workshops organized by'the S.A. Chemical Institute. It has also been useful for similar short courses given at various universities and technikons. I have made extensive use ofthe manufacturers' literature, and I am grateful to them for this information. A wide variety of applications has been drawn from the literature to use as examples and these are acknowledged in the text. A fuller list of the books, reviews and other literature ofthermal analysis is given towards the back of this book. The ICTA booklet 'For Better Thermal Analysis' is also a valuable source of information. I am particularly grateful to my wife, Cindy, for typing the manuscript, to Mrs Heather Wilson for the line drawings, and to Professor David Dollimore of the University of Toledo, Ohio, for many helpful suggestions.

R. W. DYSON There will be few readers of this book who are not aware of the contribution that polymers make to modern life. They are to be seen around the home, at work, in transport and in leisure pursuits. They take many forms which include plastic mouldings and extrusions, plastic film and sheet, plastic laminates (fibreglass and formica), rubber gloves, hoses, tyres and sealing rings, fibres for textiles and carpets and so on, cellular products for cushioning and thermal insulation, adhesives and coating materials such as paints and varnishes. The majority of these polymers are synthetic and are derived from oil products. The most important of these in terms of tonnage used are polymers based upon styrene, vinyl chloride, ethylene, propylene and butadiene among plastics and rubber materials, and nylons, polyethyleneterephthalate and poly acrylonitrile among fibres. The total amount of these polymers used each year runs into millions of tonnes. These polymers are sometimes known as commodity polymers because they are used for everyday artefacts. They are available in many grades and formats to meet a variety of applications and processing techniques. The properties can be adjusted by using additives such as heat and light stabilizers, plasticizers, and reinforcing materials. Often, grades are specially designed and formulated to meet particular requirements and, in a sense, these might be regarded as specialities. Much has been written about these materials elsewhere and they are not the concern of this book.

The NATO Advanced Study Institute on "Electronic Structure and Properties of Polymers" was held at the Facultes Universitaires de Namur (F.U.N.) from August 31 till September 14, 1977. We wish to express our deepest gratitude to the Scientific Affairs Division of NATO, the main sponsor of this Institute, and to the Facultes Universitaires Notre Dame de la Paix and their Board who gave us generous financial help as well as accommodation for the School. Our sincere thanks to Dr Tilo Kester from the NATO Scien tific Affairs Division and Prof. Roger Troisfontaines, Rector and President f the Facultes Notre Dame de la Paix. This volume contains the main lectures of the Institute. It is our great pleasure to thank all the lecturers for their most excellent and interesting lectures and for the clarity of their manuscripts. During the School the participants and lecturers felt that though there has been considerable progress in recent years in the methods applicable to the quantum theoretical treatment of polymers, not very many calculations of their properties have been performed. This is the reason that the title of this volume has been changed to "Quantum Theory of Polymers.""

Macromolecule-Metal Complexes gives the first concise overview on the topic, both on fundamentals and new application areas. Their synthesis, kinetics and thermodynamics are detailed; special properties such as gas transport, charge transport, catalysis and lightinduced processes are emphasized. Furthermore, the authors treat the actual working areas for new application methods.
Thus, the book will be a very helpful tool for Polymer Scientists, Materials Scientists, Organic Chemists, and Physical Chemists working in these fields.

The storage of electroenergy is an essential feature of modem energy technologies. Unfortunately, no economical and technically feasible method for the solution of this severe problem is presently available. But electrochemistry is a favourite candidate from an engineering point of view. It promises the highest energy densities of all possible alternatives. If this is true, there will be a proportionality between the amount of electricity to be stored and the possible voltage, together with the mass of materials which make this storage possible. Insofar it is a matter of material science to develop adequate systems. Electricity is by far the most important secondary energy source. The present production rate, mainly in the thermal electric power stations, is in the order of 1.3 TW. Rechargeable batteries (RB) are of widespread use in practice for electroenergy storage and supply. The total capacity of primary and rechargeable batteries being exploited is the same as that of the world electric power stations. However, the important goal in the light of modem energy technology, namely the economical storage of large amounts of electricity for electric vehicles, electric route transport, load levelling, solar energy utilization, civil video & audio devices, earth and spatial communications, etc. will not be met by the presently available systems. Unless some of the new emerging electrochemical systems are established up to date, RB's based on aqueous acidic or alkali accumulators are mainly produced today.

Chemical modification of polymers by reactive modifiers is no longer an academic curiosity but a commercial reality that has delivered a diverse range of speciality materials for niche markets: reactively grafted styrenic alloys, maleated polyolefins, super-tough nylons, silane modified and moisture-cured polyolefins, and thermoplastic elastomers, are but few exam ples of commercial successes. Although the approach of reactive modification of polymers has been largely achieved either in solution or in the solid state (through in situ reactions in polymer melts), it is the latter route that has attracted most attention in the last two decades owing to its flexibility and cost-effective ness. This route, referred to as reactive processing, focuses on the use of suitable reactive modifier(s) and the adoption of conventional polymer processing machinery, an extruder or a mixer, as a chemical reactor, to perform in situ targeted reactions for chemical modification of preformed polymers. This relatively simple, though scientifically highly challenging, approach to reactive modification offers unique opportunities in exploiting various reactive modifiers for the purpose of altering and transforming in a controlled manner the properties of preformed commercial polymers into new/speciality materials with tailor-made properties and custom-designed performance for target applications. Such an economically attractive route constitutes a radical diversion away from the traditional practices of manufacturing new polymers from monomers which involves massive in vestments in sophisticated technologies and chemical plants."

The discoveries of organometallic catalysts for olefin polymerization by Karl Ziegler and that of stereoregular olefin polymers by Giulio Natta are probably the two most important achievements in the areas of catalysis and polymer chemistry in the second half of this century. They led to the development of a new branch of chemical industry, and to a large volume production of high-density and linear low-density polyethylene, isotactic polypropylene, ethylene-propylene rubbers, isotactic poly I-butene, and poly-4-methyl-l-pentene. These discoveries merited the Nobel prize, which was awarded to K. Ziegler and G. Natta in 1963. The initial works of Ziegler and Natta were followed by an "explosion" of scientific papers and patents covering all aspects of polymerization chemistry, catalyst synthesis, and polymerization kinetics as well as the structural, chemical, physical, and technological characteristics of stereo regular polyolefins, polydienes, and olefin copolymers. It is sufficient to say that in the twenty-five years after the first publications more than 15,000 papers and patents appeared on subjects related to the area. . The development brought about the establishment of several prominent groups of scientists occupied with the study of olefin polymerization. The most important of these were scientific schools in Italy, Germany, England, the United States, Japan, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Venezuela. In addition, many major chemical and petrochemical corporations throughout the world established labora tories devoted to the development of the technology of catalyst synthesis and olefin polymerization."

The purpose of the present series of publications is two-fold. In the first place it is intended to review progress in the development of practical stabilising systems for a wide range of polymers and applications. A complementary and ultimately more important objec tive is to accommodate these practical developments within the framework of antioxidant theory, since there can be little question that further major advances in the practice of stabilisation technology will only be possible on the basis of a firm mechanistic foundation. Research into the role of 'stable' free radicals as antioxidants and stabilisers for polymers has intensified in recent years. Nitroxyl radicals (nitroxides) were the earliest long-lived radicals to be investi gated in detail and Maslov and Zaikov review the developments that have taken place in understanding their reaction mechanisms from the time when they were first investigated in liquid hydrocarbon systems to the present day when their outstanding performance as light stabilisers has been the object of much scientific research. Although some features of their reactivity remain obscure, the authors approach the problem kinetically and indicate the factors limiting their effectiveness."

During the last two decades, the production of polymers and plastics has been increasing rapidly. In spite of developing new polymers and polymeric materials, only 40-60 are used commercially on a large scale. It has been estimated that half of the annual production of polymers is employed outdoors. Increasing the stability of polymers and plastics towards heat, light, atmospheric oxygen and other environmental agents and weathering conditions has always been a very important problem. The photochemical instability of most of polymers limits them to outdoor application, where they are photo degraded fast over periods ranging from months to a few years. To the despair of technologists and consumers alike, photodegrada tion and environmental ageing of polymers occur much faster than can be expected from knowledge collected in laboratories. In many cases, improved methods of preparation and purification of both monomers and polymers yield products of better quality and higher resistance to heat and light. However, without stabilization of polymers by applica tion of antioxidants (to decrease thermal oxidative degradation) and photostabilizers (to decrease photo-oxidative degradation) it would be impossible to employ polymers and plastics in everyday use.

Solvents and Self-Organization of Polymers brings together scientists who are experts in macromolecular synthesis, the physical chemistry and the physics of polymer self-organization. The book also contains experimental results and methods, analytical theory and computer simulations. While the work concentrates on problems of basic science, such practical applications as pharmacology are not excluded. The broad cross-fertilization between these areas makes the book a fascinating and masterly survey of the area.

"Sample Controlled Thermal Analysis" (SCTA) defines the branch of thermal analysis in which a feedback from the sample is used to control its heating or cooling. It is therefore the sample itself which determines its own heating and cooling conditions, as the name implies. This approach is a real breakthrough in the field of thermal analysis. It has the advantage, compared with conventional thermal analysis, of eliminating uncertainties due to thermal effects in the sample container, improving resolution, and accurately determining reaction temperatures and accurate kinetic data. SCTA has, since its introduction in the early 1970's, been used in many studies both on inorganic and to a certain extent organic (polymers) compounds with the aim of studying the temperature, type and kinetics of reactions taking place during heating and cooling; in the case of ceramics and adsorbents SCTA has even been used in the synthesis of materials with specific properties. These techniques are now also available in commercial thermal analysis instruments.
Sample Controlled Thermal Analysis gives a short presentation of the spirit and history of SCTA and then focuses on: basic SCTA techniques, applications of SCTA in kinetic studies and applications in the study of ceramics, adsorbents and catalysts. Finally the expected future development of SCTA is discussed.
This book is an invaluable reference for materials scientists, chemists, geologists, and engineers involved in the development of new materials, the manufacturing processes and quality control. It is also useful for research in solid state chemistry, materials science, materials in general, and analytical chemistry. Producers of thermoanalytical equipment and manufacturers of catalysts, technological ceramics and adsorbents for industrial or environment applications will find this an important resource.

This monograph contains manuscripts, poster abstracts and summary statements representing the contributions of a group of scientists who participated in the sixth annual Texas A&M Industry-University Cooperative Chemistry Program (IUCCP) at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas, March 22-24, 1988. This symposium on "Functional Polymers" was organized by a university-industrial steering committee consisting of Dr. D. Keene, Hoechst Celanese; Dr. D. E. McLemore, Dow Chemical Company; Dr. B. Frushour, Monsanto Company; Dr. S. Corley, Shell Development; Dr. F. Hoffstadt, BPAmerica; Dr. D. E. Bergbreiter, Texas A&M University; Dr. C. A. J. Hoeve, Texas A&M University; Dr. C. R. Martin, Texas A&M University; Dr. A. Clearfield, Texas A&M University; and Dr. A. E. Martell, Texas A&M University. The symposium itself was generously supported by the industrial companies participating in the IUCCP program. These sponsoring chemical companies include; Shell Development Company, Dow Chemical Company, BPAmerica, Monsato Company and Hoechst Celanese. The choice of "Functional Polymers" as the subject for this symposium reflects the rapid developments occurring in the broad field of polymer science and the potential for using polymeric derivatives in many new exciting and potentially profitable applications. The invited papers and submitted posters reflect the diversity of this field and include many different topics ranging from biomedical applications of polymers to conducting polymers to use of polymers as lithographic masks and recording media. General topics included in the symposium were: photoresponsive polymers, polymer blends, electronically conductive polymers, polymers catalysts, biomedical polymers and membrane transport and permeability.

Fine Particles Science and Technology deals with the preparation, characterization and technological applications of monodisperse particles in the micro to nano size range. A broad view of this frontier field is given, covering understanding the mechanisms by which uniform fine particles are formed and the search for new processes; the mechanism of the precipitation technique, requiring knowledge of the relationship between the complex solution chemistry and the products formed; the sequence of events leading to the formation of monodisperse colloids. The following topics are presented: microparticles, nanoparticles, applications in the preparation of materials, synthesis and properties, environmental applications, and many others.

Modern society makes increasing demands for novelty in materials and their properties which are ever more exacting. Crystalline polymers are in the forefront of this demand and improvements are constantly occurring across the entire range from existing materials of high tonnage to novel materials with application in information technology. The developments recorded in this volume reflect this situation. Chapter 1 is a comprehensive review of the polymer PHB, poly(hydroxybutyrate), which is new to industrial manufacturing but is a naturally occurring substance. It has potentially valuable properties but has excited interest especially because it is biodegradable. It may, therefore, provide one means of reducing environmental pollution. Improvements in existing materials, beyond those which are ob tainable by optimization of known variables, are most likely to come from understanding of structure-property relationships. Polymer is able to make effective science has now reached the stage where it synthesis of information from complementary techniques, leading to rapidly deepening understanding. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 are all con cerned with technical developments which are contributing substan tially to this synthesis. The possibilities of electron microscopy, specifically the characterization of lamellar microstructure, have been transformed by permanganic etching. Now real organization (which can be very different from what had previously been inferred) can be used as a basis for explaining polymeric properties. In Chapter 3, Mitchell and Windle give a critical account of the assessment of orientation in liquid crystalline polymers, a rapidly developing new field in which they have played a leading part.