While it seems possible to present a fairly complete uni?ed theory of undistorted polytropes, as attempted in the previous chapter, the theory of distorted polytropes is much more extended and - phisticated, so that I present merely a brief overview of the theories that seem to me most interesting and important. Basically, the methods proposed to study the hydrostatic equilibrium of a distorted self-gravitating mass can be divided into two major groups (Blinnikov 1975): (i) Analytic or semia- lytic methods using a small parameter connected with the distortion of the polytrope. (ii) More or less accurate numerical methods. Lyapunov and later Carleman (see Jardetzky 1958, p. 13) have demonstrated that a sphere is a unique solution to the problem of hydrostatic equilibrium for a ?uid mass at rest in tridimensional space. The problem complicates enormously if the sphere is rotating rigidly or di?erentially in space round an axis, and/or if it is distorted magnetically or tidally. Even for the simplest case of a uniformly rotating ?uid body with constant density not all possible solutions have been found (Zharkov and Trubitsyn 1978, p. 222). The sphere becomes an oblate ?gure, and we have no a priori knowledge of its strati? cation, boundary shape, planes of symmetry, transfer of angular momentum in di?erentially rotating bodies, etc.

Physical models of gas discharge processes in gas flows and numerical simulation methods, which are used for numerical simulation of these phenomena are considered in the book. Significant attention is given to a solution of two-dimensional problems of physical mechanics of electric arc, radio-frequency, micro-wave, and optical discharges, as well as to investigation of electrodynamic structure of direct current glow discharges. Problems of modern computational magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) are considered also. Prospects of the different kinds of discharges use in aerospace applications are discussed. This book is intended for scientists and engineers concerned with physical gas dynamics, physics of the low-temperature plasma and gas discharges, and also for students and post-graduate students of physical and technical specialties of universities.

This chapter has shown a small sample of GIS applications in economic devel- ment. GIS is a powerful tool for data analysis and presentation, and the economic development rami cations are truly signi cant. The speed at which data and stra- gies can be coordinated is clearly changing the way economic developers approach their job. There are a number of important trends that are likely to result in GIS becoming more pervasive in the economic development community. These include declining costs of GIS software, increased computing power, and the growth of Web-based GIS applications. There also has been increase in GIS skills among economic development professionals. References Bastian, L. (2002). Getting the best from the web. Area Development Site and Facility Planning, March 1-7. Accessed 5 September 2008. Batheldt, H. (2005). Geographies of production: growth regimes in spatial perspective (II) - kno- edge creation and growth in clusters. Progress in Human Geography, 29(2), 204-216. Bathelt,H.,Malmberg,A.,Maskell,P.(2004). Clustersandknowledge: localbuzz,globalpipelines and the process of knowledge creation. Progress in Human Geography, 28(1), 31-56. Bernthal, M., Regan, T. (2004). The economic impact of a NASCAR racetrack on a rural com- nity and region. Sports Marketing Quarterly, 13(1), 26-34. Blackwell, M., Cobb, S. Weinbert, D. (2002). The economic impact of educational institutions: Issues and methodology. Economic Development Quarterly, 16(1), 88-95. Blair, J. (1995). Local Economic Development, Analysis and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

This book presents a physicists view of life. The primary life functions of animals, such as eating, growing, reproducing and getting around all depend on motion: Motion of materials through the body, motion of limbs and motion of the entire body through water, air and on land. These activities are driven by internal information stored in the genes or in the brain and by external information transmitted by the senses. This book models these life functions with the tools of physics. It will appeal to all scientists, from the undergraduate level upwards, who are interested in the role played by physics in the animal kingdom.

Everything you wanted to know about physics, biology, and the world at large becomes straightforward once you understand the life-organizing principle. Author E.M. Elsheikh, a mathematician and longtime professor, examines what the principle tells us about nature and life in this academic work. He proves that the secrets of our world reside in the quantum information contained in our DNA and genome.Discover the inner workings of life, and develop a better understanding of a maximum-action principle that explains self-organization, self-replication, and self-evolution. He also explores such topics as laws that describe phylogenetic evolution and ontogenetic development; little-known facts about genetics and evolution, including why Darwinian theory facilitates a more dynamic conception of human nature; extensions of quantum theory; and new foundations of knowledge.By challenging the notions of mainstream biology and physics and questioning assumptions about life being a physical rather than a supernatural phenomenon, you'll stumble upon truths that few others know. Get ready to go on a fascinating journey that challenges paradigms and leads you to the Discovery of the Life-Organizing Principle.

Various effects of the atmosphere have to be considered in space geodesy and all of them are described and treated consistently in this textbook. Two chapters are concerned with ionospheric and tropospheric path delays of microwave and optical signals used by space geodetic techniques, such as the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), or Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR). It is explained how these effects are best reduced and modelled to improve the accuracy of space geodetic measurements. Other chapters are on the deformation of the Earth's crust due to atmospheric loading, on atmospheric excitation of Earth rotation, and on atmospheric effects on gravity field measurements from special satellite missions such as CHAMP, GRACE, and GOCE. All chapters have been written by staff members of the Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation at TU Wien who are experts in the particular fields.

This book deals with different aspects of small satellites for Earth observation: programmatics; current and planned Earth observation missions; spacebased instruments; satellite constellations; satellite subsystems;spacecraft bus systems; lessons learned; special aspects (e.g. thermal control, integration and test, launch services, ground station).The material provided is collected from the 6th IAA Symposium on Small Satellites for Earth Observation, initiated by the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), and hosted by DLR, the German Aerospace Center. The participation of scientists, engineers, and managers from 24 countries reflected the high interest in the use of small satellites for dedicated missions applied to Earth observation.

Image synthesis across and within medical imaging modalities is an active area of research with broad applications in radiology and radiation oncology. This book covers the principles and methods of medical image synthesis, along with state-of-the-art research. First, various traditional non-learning-based, traditional machine-learning-based, and recent deep-learning-based medical image synthesis methods are reviewed. Second, specific applications of different inter- and intra-modality image synthesis tasks and of synthetic image-aided segmentation and registration are introduced and summarized, listing and highlighting the proposed methods, study designs, and reported performances with the related clinical applications of representative studies. Third, the clinical usages of medical image synthesis, such as treatment planning and image-guided adaptive radiotherapy, are discussed. Last, the limitations and current challenges of various medical synthesis applications are explored, along with future trends and potential solutions to solve these difficulties. The benefits of medical image synthesis have sparked growing interest in a number of advanced clinical applications, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-only radiation therapy treatment planning and positron emission tomography (PET)/MRI scanning. This book will be a comprehensive and exciting resource for undergraduates, graduates, researchers, and practitioners.

This book systematizes data on the heterophase states and their evolution in perovskite-type ferroelectric solid solutions. It also provides a general interpretation of heterophase and domain structures on changing temperature, composition or electric field, as well as the complete analysis of interconnections domain structures, unit-cell parameters changes, heterophase structures and stress relief. The description of numerous examples of heterophase states in lead-free ferroelectric solid solutions is also included. Domain state-interface diagrams contribute to the interpretation of heterophase states in perovskite-type ferroelectric solid solutions and describe the stress relief in the presence of polydomain phases, the behavior of unit-cell parameters of coexisting phases, the effect of external electric field etc. This 2nd edition generalizes the results on the heterophase ferroelectric solid solutions and the stress relief and presents new results on heterophase/domain structures and phase contents in lead-free ferroelectric solid solutions.

The biophysics of excitable membranes and extracellular potential fields emerged at the end of the 18th century, together with electrophysiology, and has been used ever since as a basis for the development of electrophysiological investigations. This holds true even for the contemporary stage of initial discoveries concerning the molecular mechanisms of membrane excitability. The biophysics of ionic channels has gradually revealed the genesis of the ionic currents and of the biopotentials in different excitable structures. On the basis of electrodynamics, the extracellular potential fields in the living body, considered as a volume conductor, have been studied intensively. The knowledge accumulated constitutes the theoretical basis for interpretation of the electrophysiological data. Over a period of more than 15 years a group of Bulgarian investigators led by A. Gydikov has systematically studied the dependence between the intra- and extracellular potentials of the skeletal muscles. The present book summarizes these investigations. Using a great amount of factual material from experiments and model investigations on the skeletal muscle potentials, the author considers: (a) the extracellular potential field of single skeletal muscle fibres and their dependence of the parameters of intracellular action potentials, the geometric parameters of the fibres and of the volume conductor; (b) the potentials of single motor units; (c) the compound and reflex muscle potentials, and (d) the interference electromyogram. The comprehensive consideration of the biophysics of skeletal muscle potentials is of interest to a broad circle of specialists. The book summarizes contemporary knowledge in thisfield and presents a consistent theoretical basis of electromyography which is of great importance not only for the neurological clinic, but also for different fields of applied physiology.

This book highlights and discusses recent developments that have contributed to an improved understanding of observed mantle heterogeneities and their relation to the thermo-chemical state of Earth's mantle, which ultimately holds the key to unlocking the secrets of the evolution of our planet. This series of topical reviews and original contributions address 4 themes. Theme 1 covers topics in geophysics, including global and regional seismic tomography, electrical conductivity and seismic imaging of mantle discontinuities and heterogeneities in the upper mantle, transition zone and lower mantle. Theme 2 addresses geochemical views of the mantle including lithospheric evolution from analysis of mantle xenoliths, composition of the deep Earth and the effect of water on subduction-zone processes. Theme 3 discusses geodynamical perspectives on the global thermo-chemical structure of the deep mantle. Theme 4 covers application of mineral physics data and phase equilibrium computations to infer the regional-scale thermo-chemical structure of the mantle.

This book is devoted to current advances in the field of nonlinear mathematical physics and modeling of critical phenomena that can lead to catastrophic events. Pursuing a multidisciplinary approach, it gathers the work of scientists who are developing mathematical and computational methods for the study and analysis of nonlinear phenomena and who are working actively to apply these tools and create conditions to mitigate and reduce the negative consequences of natural and socio-economic disaster risk. This book summarizes the contributions of the International School and Workshop on Nonlinear Mathematical Physics and Natural Hazards, organized within the framework of the South East Europe Network in Mathematical and Theoretical Physics (SEENET MTP) and supported by UNESCO. It was held at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences from November 28 to December 2, 2013. The contributions are divided into two major parts in keeping with the scientific program of the meeting. Among the topics covered in Part I (Nonlinear Mathematical Physics towards Critical Phenomena) are predictions and correlations in self organized criticality, space-time structure of extreme current and activity events in exclusion processes, quantum spin chains and integrability of many-body systems, applications of discriminantly separable polynomials, MKdV-type equations, and chaotic behavior in Yang-Mills theories. Part II (Seismic Hazard and Risk) is devoted to probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, seismic risk mapping, seismic monitoring, networking and data processing in Europe, mainly in South-East Europe. The book aims to promote collaboration at the regional and European level to better understand and model phenomena that can cause natural and socio-economic disasters, and to contribute to the joint efforts to mitigate the negative consequence of natural disasters. This collection of papers reflects contemporary efforts on capacity building through developing skills, exchanging knowledge and practicing mathematical methods for modeling nonlinear phenomena, disaster risk preparedness and natural hazards mitigation. The target audience includes students and researchers in mathematical and theoretical physics, earth physics, applied physics, geophysics, seismology and earthquake danger and risk mitigation.

The symbiosis between particles physics and cosmology has virtually become a conjugal relationship. Hence the 9th Biennial Course of the International School of Cosmic-Ray Astrophysics was designed to bridge these formerly disparate disciplines. This NATO Advanced Study Institute took place at the Ettore Majorana Centre in Erice, Italy, June 20-30, 1992. Seventy participants from 17 countries participated in lively interactions and enjoyed the stimulating lectures that form the basis for this volume. The book includes current advances in both astrophysics (cosmic gamma ravs, X-rays, cosmic rays) and cosmology (an introduction to inflation in big-bang theory, the age of the universe, nucleosynthesis in the early universe). It is suitable for reading and study by all interested physical scientists, especially those having a limited specialized background in astrophysics and cosmology.

This volume contains lectures given at the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Long-Time Predictions in Dynamics conducted in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy during August 3-16, 1975. The lectures were presented in groups, according to the original structure of the Institute. Under "Fundamentals" the general concepts were treated by Contopoulos, DeWitt, Reichl, Stiefel, Szebehely, Bartlett, Kirchgraber, Verhults and Sigrist. This was followed by the series of lectures on "Numerical and Statistical Analysis" offered by Aarseth, Baumgarte and Tapley. The third principal subject was "Three and Many-Body Problems" with Garfinkel, Broucke, Hadjidemetriou, Marchal, Nahon, Waldvogel, Lasco, and Markellos as the major speakers. The last group of lectures treated "Dynamics in Astronomy" by Colombo, Message, Ovenden, Vicente, and Douglas. Some of the outstanding lectures were rather didactic in nature or were published elsewhere or could not meet the deadline for publication. The Editors will be delighted to furnish leads to those interested in these lectures. Some of the lectures were presented in form of seminar-contributions. These are published as Summaries at the end of this Volume. The Institute was dedicated to the conceptual, analytical, numerical and applied aspects of the problem of long-time predic tion in dynamics. This fundamental problem emerged in all lectures: linearization, regularization, stabilization, averaging, estimation, periodic orbits, qualitative aspects, secular variations, resonance, invariants, etc. were some of the subjects treated in depth. Some conclusions are offered here with the utmost humility and with the advance acknowledgement of the fact that we all hear what we want to hear."

This book presents the third volume of a complete development of the new structural classification of minerals, which is based on the internal crystal structure, and is therefore its natural classification. Because of the large domain of the mineral kingdom, this work is divided in three volumes, in which the minerals are ordered from the structurally simple to the more complex.

Audience: This work will be of particular interest to teachers and research workers of in mineralogy, and in inorganic crystal structures in academia.

This book highlights the rapidly developing field of advanced optical methods for structural and functional brain imaging. As is known, the brain is the most poorly understood organ of a living body. It is indeed the most complex structure in the known universe and, thus, mapping of the brain has become one of the most exciting frontlines of contemporary research. Starting from the fundamentals of the brain, neurons and synapses, this book presents a streamlined and focused coverage of the core principles, theoretical and experimental approaches, and state-of-the-art applications of most of the currently used imaging methods in brain research. It presents contributions from international leaders on different photonics-based brain imaging modalities and techniques. Included are comprehensive descriptions of many of the technology driven spectacular advances made over the past few years that have allowed novel insights of the structural and functional details of neurons. The book is targeted at researchers, engineers and scientists who are working in the field of brain imaging, neuroscience and connectomics. Although this book is not intended to serve as a textbook, it will appeal to undergraduate students engaged in the specialization of brain imaging.

This volume covers most areas in the physics of the solar system, with special emphasis on gravitational dynamics; its gist is the rational, in particular mathematical, understanding of the main processes at work. Special stress is given to the variety of objects in the planetary system and their long-term evolution. The unique character of this book is its breadth and depth, which aims at bringing the reader to the threshold of original research; however, special chapters and introductory sections are included for the benefit of the beginner.

Physics of the Solar System is based on the earlier work by B. Bertotti and P. Farinella: Physics of the Earth and the Solar System, which has been completely revised and updated, and more focused on the solar system. It generally attains a higher level than the previous version. This volume is generally suitable for post-graduate students and researchers in physics, especially in the field related to the solar system. A large amount of figures and diagrams is included, often compiled with real data.

The Encyclopedia of Cosmology, first published in 1993, recounts the history, philosophical assumptions, methodological ambiguities, and human struggles that have influenced the various responses to the basic questions of cosmology through the ages, as well as referencing important scientific theories. Just as the recognition of social conventions in other cultures can lead to a more productive perspective on our own behaviour, so too a study of the cosmologies of other times and places can enable us recognise elements of our own cosmology that might otherwise pass as inevitable developments. Apart from modern natural science, therefore, this volume incorporates brief treatments of Native American, Cave-Dweller, Chinese, Egyptian, Islamic, Megalithic, Mesopotamian, Greek, Medieval and Copernican cosmology, leading to an appreciation of cosmology as an intellectual creation, not merely a collection of facts. It is a valuable reference tool for any student or academic with an interest in the history of science and cosmology specifically.

This translation of"A Brief History of Radio Astronomy in the USSR"makes descriptions of the antennas and instrumentation used in the USSR, the astronomical discoveries, as well as interesting personal backgrounds of many of the early key players in Soviet radio astronomy available in the English language for the first time. This book is a collection of memoirs recounting an interesting but largely still dark era of Soviet astronomy. The arrangement of the essays is determined primarily by the time when radio astronomy studies began at the institutions involved. These include the Lebedev Physical Institute (FIAN), Gorkii State University and the affiliated Physical-Technical Institute (GIFTI), Moscow State University Sternberg Astronomical institute (GAISH) and Space Research Institute (IKI), the Department of Radio Astronomy of the Main Astronomical Observatory in Pulkovo (GAO), Special Astrophysical Observatory (SAO), Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory (BAO), Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, Academy of Sciences of the Ukraine (SSR), Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics of the USSR Academy of Sciences (IRE), Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, the Ionosphere and Radio-Wave Propagation Institute (IZMIRAN), Siberian Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, the Ionosphere and Radio-Wave Propagation (SibIZMIRAN), the Radio Astrophysical Observatory of the Latvian Academy of Sciences and Leningrad State University.

"A Brief History of Radio Astronomy in the USSR"is a fascinating source of information on a past era of scientific culture and fields of research including the Soviet SETI activities. Anyone interested in the recent history of science will enjoy reading this volume.

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The progress of science during the past centuries has been in some measure energized by the development of new technologies. People are no more intelligent now than they were five centuries ago, or indeed five millenia ago. The differences are in the pool of past experience and the availability of means for manipulating the physical and mental environment. Until fairly recently, the development of new technologies in astronomy and geodesy has served primarily either to broaden the scope of phenomena that could be studied or to improve the precision with which one could examine already-studied phenomena. There seemed to be no likelihood that a situation could arise similar to that in particle physics, where the uncertainty principle indicates that the observation of the state of an object alters that state, affecting the observation. Indeed, we have not yet reached that point, but certain of the new techniques have introduced a degree of complication and inter dependence perhaps not previously encountered in the macro sciences. When observational capability is so fine that the data can be corrupted by the tidal motions of the instruments, for example, then there are a myriad of physical effects that must be considered in analyzing the data; the happy aspect of this is that the data can be used to study exactly these same effects. The complication does not, however, extend only to predictive computations against which the data are compared."

The present book provides recent developments in various in vivo imaging and sensing techniques such as photo acoustics (PA) imaging and microscopy, ultrasound-PA combined modalities, optical coherence tomography (OCT) and micro OCT, Raman and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), Fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLI) techniques and nanoparticle enabled endoscopy etc. There is also a contributing chapter from leading medical instrumentation company on their view of optical imaging techniques in clinical laparoscopic surgery. The UN proclaimed 2015 as the International Year of Light and Light-based Technologies, emphasizing achievements in the optical sciences and their importance to human beings. In this context, this book focusses on the recent advances in biophotonics techniques primarily focused towards translational medicine contributed by thought leaders who have made cutting edge developments in various photonics techniques.

The present decade is opening new frontiers in high-energy astrophysics. After the X-ray satellites in the 1980's, including Einstein, Tenma, EXOSAT and Ginga, several satellites are, or will soon be, simultaneously in orbit offering spectacular advances in X-ray imaging at low energies (ROSATj Yohkoh) as well as at high energies (GRANAT), in spectroscopy with increased bandwidth (ASCAj SAX), and in timing (XTE). While these satellites allow us to study atomic radiation from hot plasmas or energetic electrons, other satellites study nuclear radiation at gamma-ray energies (CGRO) associated with radioactivity or spallation reactions. These experiments show that the whole universe is emitting radiation at high energies, hence we call it the "hot universe. " The hot universe, preferentially emitting X- and gamma-rays, provides us with many surprises and much information. A symposium "The Hot Universe" was held in conjunction with the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, at Kyoto on August 26-30 in 1997. The proceedings are organized as follows. Synthetic view of "the hot universe" is discussed in Section 1, "Plasma and Fresh Nucleosynthesis Phenomena." Timely discussions on the strategy for future missions "Future Space Program" are found in Section 2. Then the contents are divided into two major subjects: the compact objects and thin hot diffuse plasmas. Section 3 is devoted to the category of compact objects which includes white dwarfs, neutron stars, and gravitationally collapsed objects: stellar mass black holes or active galactic nuclei.

This monograph stems from the lectures given during the summer course at the University of La Laguna, Canary Islands, Spain. It includes the main characterization techniques useful nowadays for ceramics, glasses, and glass-ceramics, and reviews the new microscopes for characterizing materials, and gives an overview of inorganic materials such as zeolites. The theory for XRD texture analysis and analytical methods are also covered. The book is not only up to date on these techniques but also on applications to inorganic materials, both amorphous and crystalline, such as glasses, glass-ceramics, and ceramics.

The living organisms and systems possess extraordinary properties of programmed development, differentiation, growth, response, movement, duplication of key molecules and in m any cases higher mental functions. But the organisms are physical objects so they must follow laws of physics yet they do not seem to obey them. Physicists cannot easily persuade themselves to accept this as finally true. Non-living objects are governed by these laws of physics and they can explain these properties. However, in the living systems too phenomena encountered like coupled non-linear interactions, manybody effects, cooperativity, coherence, phase transitions, reversible metastable states are being understood better with the aid of powerful theoretical and experimental techniques and hope is raised that these may let us understand the mysteriousness of life. Contributors to this volume are a small fraction of rapidly growing scientific opinion that these aspects of living bodies are to be expected in a hitherto inadequately suspected state of matter which is in the main directed by these physical properties pushed almost to limit. This state of matter, the living matter, deserves to be called The Living State. Mishra proposes that given hydrogenic orbitals, atoms showing easy hybridisability and multiple valances, molecules with low-lying electronic levels, "loosestructure," and a metabolic pump in thermodynamically open system, various fundamental properties of living state can emerge automatically. Structurally these are all known to be present.