The 37th Annual Denver Conference on Applications of X-Ray Analysis was held August 1-5, 1988, at the Sheraton Steamboat Resort and Conference Center, Steamboat Springs, Colorado. As usual, alternating with x-ray diffraction, the emphasis this year was x-ray fluorescence, but as has been the pattern for several occasions over the last few years, the Plenary Session did not deal with that subject, specifically. In an attempt to introduce the audience to one of the new developments in x-ray analysis, the title of the session was "High Brilliance Sources/Applications," and dealt exclusively with synchrotron radiation, a topic which has made a very large impact on the x-ray community over the last decade. As the organizer and co-chairman of the Plenary Session (with Paul Predecki), it is my responsibility to report on that session here. The Conference had the privilege of obtaining the services of some of the preeminent practitioners of research using this remarkable x-ray source; they presented the audience with unusually lucid descriptions of the work which has been accomplished in the development and application of the continuous, high intensity, tunable, polarized and collimated x-rays available from no facility other than these specialized storage rings. The opening lecture (and I use that term intentionally) was an enthusiastic description of "What is Synchrotron Radiation?" by Professor Boris Batterman of Cornell University and the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Sourc(! (CHESS).

Effective and ef cient modelling of in nite media is important for the production of accurate and useful solutions for many scienti c and engineering problems invo- ing in nite domains (Bettess 1977, 1980; Chow and Smith 1981; Medina and Taylor 1983; Zhang and Zhao 1987; Zhao et al. 1989; Zhao and Valliappan 1993a, b, c, d; Astley 1996, 1998; Yang et al. 1996; Yang and Huang 2001; Yun et al. 2000, 2007; Wang et al. 2006). Some typical examples involving in nite domains are as follows: (1) earthquake wave propagation within the upper crust of the Earth in the elds of geophysics and seismology; (2) dynamic structure-foundation interaction in the elds of geotechnical, civil and dam engineering; and (3) transient pore- uid ow, heat transfer and mass transport within the interior of the Earth in the elds of g- science and geoenvironmental engineering. Although the solid Earth is viewed as a bounded domain at the terrestrial scale, it can be treated as an unbounded domain at the human scale. For instance, in the case of predicting possible property damages caused by an earthquake, only a limited region around the epicentre is of interest because the earthquake wave energy is signi cantly reduced as the distance from the epicentre is increased.

Physics of Planetary Rings describes striking structures of the planetary rings of Saturn, Uranus, Jupiter, and Neptune: Narrow ringlets, spiral waves, and a chain of clumps. The author has contributed essential ideas to the full understanding of planetary rings via the stability analysis of dynamical systems. The combination of a high-quality description, the set of interesting illustrations, as well as the fascinating and natural presentation will make this book of considerable interest to astronomers, physicists, and mathematicians as well as students. There is no competing text for this book so far.

Both the high level of activity in worldwide space exploration programmes and the discovery of extra-solar planets have spurred renewed interest in the physics and evolution dynamics of solar systems. The present book has grown out of a set of lectures by leading experts in the field within the framework of the well-known EADN summer schools. It addresses primarily graduate students and young researchers but will be equally useful for scientists in search of a comprehensive tutorial account that goes beyond the material found in standard textbooks.

The NATO ARW in Irkutsk was an excellent occasion for the coming together of Eastern and Western scientists who are involved in tropospheric science; the workshop has greatly contributed to the scientific and social understanding among the participants from the many different countries. Many new personal contacts were made which will help to strengthen future collaborations. In particular, the Lake Baikal area and the Limnological Institute offer splendid opportunities for environmental research which, in part, is already on going. For most participants it was the first time to see the impressive nature of the Lake Baikal region. Hopefully, there will be a chance for a follow-up event in Siberia where researchers from the East and West can again meet and engage in fruitful scientific dialogue. The book contains extended abstracts of the lectures and the poster presentations presented at the NATO ARW "Global Atmospheric Change and its Impact on Regional Air Quality" Irkutsk, Lake Baikal, Russian Federation, August 21-27, 2001. The ARW was composed of 22 oral presentations by key lecturers and 6 additional shorter oral presentations from participants. In a special poster session the 36 poster contributions were presented and discussed. Unfortunately not all contributors submitted extended abstracts, however, to compensate two contributions have been added from 2 participants who were originally invited but were unable to attend.

The book gathers the invited talks to the XIII JENAM conference, organized this time by the European Astronomical Society (EAS) and the Spanish Astronomical Society (SEA), and hosted by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (CSIC). All branches of astrophysics are encompassed from the largest scales and cosmology to the solar system and the Sun, through the galaxies and the stars, including a section on astronomical instrumentation. Very relevant experts from all over the world speak in a single book about the most recent, exciting results from their fields in a way which is useful for both researchers in these fields and colleagues working in other disciplines. The book is accompanied by a CD-ROM including the remaining contributions of the meeting in PDF format, hence opening a wide panorama of what is going on in astrophysics nowadays.

Recent state-of-the-art technologies in fabricating low-loss optical and mechanical components have significantly motivated the study of quantum-limited measurements with optomechanical devices. Such research is the main subject of this thesis. In the first part, the author considers various approaches for surpassing the standard quantum limit for force measurements. In the second part, the author proposes different experimental protocols for using optomechanical interactions to explore quantum behaviors of macroscopic mechanical objects. Even though this thesis mostly focuses on large-scale laser interferometer gravitational-wave detectors and related experiments, the general approaches apply equally well for studying small-scale optomechanical devices.

The author is the winner of the 2010 Thesis prize awarded by the Gravitational Wave International Committee.

An up-to-date progress report on the current status of solar-terrestrial relation studies with an emphasis on observations by the Russian Interball spacecraft and the Czech Magion subsatellites. Papers in the volume describe the various spacecraft in the International Solar-Terrestrial Program and the research questions that they are being used to address. The emphasis is on correlative studies employing multiple instruments and multiple spacecraft. The book begins with a description of each spacecraft active in 1998 and describes the roles they can play in correlative studies. This is followed by an up-to-date status report concerning ongoing studies of the solar wind, foreshock, bow shock, magnetopause, magnetotail, and ionosphere, with an emphasis on the observations made by the four Interball spacecraft. Readership Researchers and graduate students of space physics and astrophysics.

The book introduces the fundamental aspects of digital imaging and covers four main themes: Ultrasound techniques and imaging applications, Magnetic resonance and MPJ in hospital, Digital imaging with X-rays, Emission tomography (PET and SPECT). Each of these topics is developed by analysing the underlying physics principles and their implementation, quality and safety aspects, clinical performance and recent advancements in the field. Some issues specific to the individual techniques are also treated, e.g. choice of radioisotopes or contrast agents, optimisation of data acquisition and storage, readout electronics, modelling and computer algorithms for imaging and measurement in ultrasounds and tomography applications.

Relativistic jets are a powerful, spectacular, yet poorly-understood phenomenon associated with accreting black holes and neutron stars. The question of the internal structure - matter content and magnetic field - of relativistic jets is of prime importance for our understanding of the underlying physics. The study of circular polarisation is both challenging and potentially very rewarding, and when applied to relativistic jets has the potential to probe the structure of the jets in unique ways.
This book compiles the contributions, both theoretical and observational, from a three-day workshop held in Amsterdam in July 2002, concerning the study of circular polarisation from relativistic jet sources.

This series of reference books describes sciences of different elds in and around geodesy with independent chapters. Each chapter covers an individual eld and describes the history, theory, objective, technology, development, highlights of research and applications. In addition, problems as well as future directions are discussed. The subjects of this reference book include Absolute and Relative Gravimetry, Adaptively Robust Kalman Filters with Applications in Navigation, Airborne Gravity Field Determination, Analytic Orbit Theory, Deformation and Tectonics, Earth Rotation, Equivalence of GPS Algorithms and its Inference, Marine Geodesy, Satellite Laser Ranging, Superconducting Gravimetry and Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry. These are individual subjects in and around geodesy and are for the rst time combined in a unique book which may be used for teaching or for learning basic principles of many subjects related to geodesy. The material is suitable to provide a general overview of geodetic sciences for high-level geodetic researchers, educators as well as engineers and students. Some of the chapters are written to ll literature blanks of the related areas. Most chapters are written by well-known scientists throughout the world in the related areas. The chapters are ordered by their titles. Summaries of the individual chapters and introductions of their authors and co-authors are as follows. Chapter 1 "Absolute and Relative Gravimetry" provides an overview of the gravimetric methods to determine most accurately the gravity acceleration at given locations.

Transport properties of plant cuticles are important for different ?elds of modern plant sciences. Ecologists and physiologists are interested in water losses to the environment via the cuticle. Penetration of plant protecting agents and nutrients into leaves and fruits is relevant for research in agriculture and plant protection. Ecotoxicologists need to know the amounts of environmental xenobiotics which accumulate in leaves and other primary plant organs from the environment. For all of these studies suitable methods should be used, and a sound theoretical basis helps to formulate testable hypotheses and to interpret experimental data. Unnecessary experiments and experiments which yield ambiguous results can be avoided. In this monograph, we have analysed on a molecular basis the movement of molecules across plant cuticles. Based on current knowledge of chemistry and str- ture of cuticles, we have characterised the aqueous and lipophilic pathways, the nature and mechanisms of mass transport and the factors controlling the rate of movement. We have focused on structure-property relationships for penetrant tra- port, which can explain why water and solute permeabilities of cuticles differ widely among plant species. Based on this knowledge, mechanisms of adaptation to en- ronmental factors can be better understood, and rates of cuticular penetration can be optimised by plant physiologists and pesticide chemists.

The book presents new clustering schemes, dynamical systems and pattern recognition algorithms in geophysical, geodynamical and natural hazard applications. The original mathematical technique is based on both classical and fuzzy sets models. Geophysical and natural hazard applications are mostly original. However, the artificial intelligence technique described in the book can be applied far beyond the limits of Earth science applications. The book is intended for research scientists, tutors, graduate students, scientists in geophysics and engineers

This book represents the Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Insti tute on Formation and Evolution of Low Mass Stars held from 21 September to 2 October 1987 at Viana do Castelo, Portugal. Holding the meeting in Portugal recognized both the historical aspects and the bright future of astronomy in Portugal. In the early sixteenth century, the Portugese played an important role in the critical diffusion of classical and medieval knowledge which formed so large a part of scientific activity at that time. Navigation and course setting, brought to a high level by Portugese explorers, relied on mathematics and astronomy to produce precise tables of solar positions. In contemporary Portu gal, astronomy is the focus of renewed interest and support at the universities. It is thus particularly appropriate that the NATO Advanced Study Institute was held on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in the friendly surroundings of the Costa Verde.

Adhesion plays a major role in the bacterial lifestyle. Bacteria can adhere to organic and inorganic surfaces, to each other, and of course to host cells during pathogenesis. The focus of this book is: how are such adhesion phenomena best studied? Microbial genetics experiments have greatly enhanced our knowledge of what bacterial factors are involved in adhesion. For numerous reasons, though, biochemical and structural biology knowledge of the molecular interactions involved in adhesion are limited. One major problem has been a lack of interdisciplinary research and understanding in the field. On the one hand, the microbiologists lack detailed knowledge of the biophysical possibilities and have limited access to the frequently expensive instrumentation involved while on the other hand, the experts in these methods frequently do not have access to the biological materials, nor do they necessarily understand the biological questions to be answered. The purpose of this book is thus to overcome this gap in communication between researchers in biology, chemistry and physics and to display the many ways and means to investigate bacterial adhesion. We hope to stimulate new and ground-breaking research.

Optical microscopy and associated technologies advanced quickly after the introduction of the laser. The techniques have stimulated further development of optical imaging theory, including 3-dimensional microscopy imaging theory in spatial and frequency domains, the theory of imaging with ultrashort-pulse beams and aberration theory for high-numerical-aperture objectives. This book introduces these new theories in terms of modern optical microscopy. It consists of seven chapters including an introduction. The chapters are organized to minimize cross-referencing. Comparisons with classical imaging theory are made when the new imaging theory is introduced. The book is intended for senior undergraduate students in courses on optoelectronics, optical engineering, photonics, biophotonics and applied physics, after they have completed modern optics or a similar subject. It is also a reference for other scientists interested in the field.

This book focuses on the assembly, organization and resultant collective dynamics of soft matter systems maintained away from equilibrium by an energy flux. Living matter is the ultimate example of such systems, which are comprised of different constituents on very different scales (ions, nucleic acids, proteins, cells). The result of their diverse interactions, maintained using the energy from physiological processes, is a fantastically well-organized and dynamic whole. This work describes results from minimal, biomimetic systems and primarily investigates membranes and active emulsions, as well as key aspects of both soft matter and non-equilibrium phenomena. It is shown that these minimal reconstitutions are already capable of a range of complex behaviour such as nonlinear electric responses, chemical communication and locomotion. These studies will bring us closer to a fundamental understanding of complex systems by reconstituting key aspects of their form and function in simple model systems. Further, they may also serve as the first technological steps towards artificial soft functional matter.

In the last 40 years geophysicists have found that it is possible to construct images and even determine important physical characteristics of rocks that can yield information about oil and gas bearing structures in the earth. To make these images and extract this information requires the application of an advanced understanding of the mathematical physics of wave propagation. The oil and gas industry labels a major collection of the necessary seismic data processing methods by the name seismic "migration". This text ist the first to treat many kinds of migration in a unified mahtematical way. The audience is mathematically oriented geophysicists or applied mathematicians working in the field of "inverse scattering imaging". The text can serve as a bridge between the applied math and geophysics community by presenting geophysicists with a practical introduction to advanced engineering mathematics, while presenting mathematicians with a window into the world of the mathematically sophistiated geophysicist.

One of the major challenges in current chemistry is to ?nd molecules able to move charges rapidly and ef?ciently from, for example, one terminus to another one under the control of an external electrical, electrochemical or photochemical stimulus. Nature has provided impressive examples of how these goals are achieved. The photosynthetic reaction center protein, for instance, rapidly moves electrons with near unity quantum ef?ciency across a lipid bilayer membrane using several redox cofactors, and thus, serves as a model for developing biomimetic analogues for applications in ?elds such as photovoltaic devices, molecular electronics and photonic materials. In this context, p-conjugated oligomeric molecular assemblies are of particular interest because they provide ef?cient electronic couplings between electroactive units - donor and acceptor termini - and display wire-like behavior. In order to make a molecule able to behave as an ideal molecular wire different requirements need to be ful?lled: i) matching between the donor (acceptor) and bridge energy levels, ii) a good electronic coupling between the electron donor and acceptor units via the bridge orbitals, and iii) a small attenuation factor. Among the many different p-conjugated oligomers, oligo(p-phenylenevin- enes) (oPPV), have emerged as a particularly promising model system that helps to comprehend/rationalize the basic features of polymeric poly(p-phenyle- vinylenes) and also as a versatile building block for novel materials with che- cally tailored properties.

The evolution of life on Earth during the last four billion years has not been uniform. Several distinct periods of mass extinction are known, the last led to the extinction of the dinosaurs some 60 million years ago. The causes for these mass extinctions are, at least in some cases, cosmic catastrophes, such as impacts of asteroid sized bodies, nearby supernova explosions etc. It is also well known that the last ice ages are triggered by variations of different parameters of the Earth'r orbit about the Sun. Cosmic catastrophes therefore have to be considered when evolution of life on planets are discussed, especially the question of habitability on them.
In this book we first discuss habitability not only on planets (in the solar system as well in extrasolar planetary systems) but also on satellites of giant planets. Life needs some energy source which is provided either by the central star of a planetary system or by tidal forces exerted by a giant planet on a large satellite of it. On Earth it took about four billion years for intelligent life to evolve. Such a long time span (which is about 1/3 of the total age of the universe) requires rather stable conditions. We therefore investigate in detail how cosmic catastrophes may destroy life, and at the same time lead to the evolution of new species. Catastrophes therefore seem to be essential for evolution to higher lifeforms.
With the recent advances of biology, the detection of extrasolar planetary systems, the great advancement of our knowledge about the chemical and physical processes that enable life, these questions can be answered in much more detail than several years ago. The reader is provided with an introduction into the various topics and for further details recent literature is cited. It will be also stressed that the evolution of life on Earth is not only connected with the existence of a stable long-lived star, the Sun, but also depends on conditions and distribution of mass in the planetary system (the existence of giant planets at a certain distance from the Sun), the existence of the Moon (which stabilizes the Earth's rotational axis), the location of the solar system in the galaxy and other factors. Primitive forms of life, however, may require less stringent environmental conditions as the detection of extremophiles has proven.

Internal wave dynamics in lakes (and oceans) is an important physical component of geophysical fluid mechanics of 'quiescent' water bodies of the Globe. The formation of internal waves requires seasonal stratification of the water bodies and generation by (primarily) wind forces. Because they propagate in basins of variable depth, a generated wave field often experiences transformation from large basin-wide scales to smaller scales. As long as this fission is hydrodynamically stable, nothing dramatic will happen. However, if vertical density gradients and shearing of the horizontal currents in the metalimnion combine to a Richardson number sufficiently small (< 1/4), the light epilimnion water mixes with the water of the hypolimnion, giving rise to vertical diffusion of substances into lower depths. This meromixis is chiefly responsible for the ventilation of the deeper waters and the homogenization of the water through the lake depth. These processes are mainly formed as a result of the physical conditions, but they play biologically an important role in the trophicational state of the lake.

Heme and chlorophyll (Chl) are porphyrins. Porphyrins (also referred to as tetrapyrroles) are essential for life in the biosphere. Chlorophyll catalyzes the conversion of solar energy to chemical energy via the process of photosynthesis. Organic life in the biosphere is made possible by consumption of the chemical energy generated by photosynthesis. Hemes are the prosthetic groups of cytochromes which are involved in electron transport during oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthetic phosphorylation which generate ATP and NADPH. The latter are essential for many cellular functions. Chlorophyll on the other hands catalyzes the process of photosynthesis. Indeed, life in the biosphere depends on the process of photosynthesis which converts light energy, carbon dioxide and water into the chemical energy, required for the formation of food and fiber. Photosynthetic efficiency is controlled by extrinsic factors such as the availability of water, CO2, inorganic nutrients, ambient temperature and the metabolic and developmental state of the plant, as well as by intrinsic factors (Lien and San Pietro, 1975). The most important intrinsic factor is the efficiency of the photosynthetic electron transport system (PETS). Conventional agriculture is one of the few human activities that have not undergone a revolution to join other activities such as overcoming gravity by flying, and landing on the moon, crossing underwater the polar cap, and communicating wirelessly over long distances via electromagnetic waves. We now feel that enough biochemical and molecular biological knowledge has accumulated to render this dream amenable to experimentation. We believe that the time has come to bioengineer chloroplasts capable of synthesizing a short chain carbohydrate such as glycerol at rates that approach the upper theoretical limits of photosynthesis [Rebeiz, C. A. (2010) Investigations of possible relationships between the chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway and the assembly of chlorophyll-protein complexes and photosynthetic efficiency. In: Rebeiz, C. A. Benning, C., Bohnert, H.J., Daniell, H., Hoober J. K., Lichtenthaler, H. K., Portis , A. R., and Tripathy, B. C. eds. The chloroplast: Basics and Applications. Springer. The Netherlands, p 1-24]. In order to achieve this goal a thorough knowledge of the Chl biosynthetic pathway is needed along with knowledge in other domains (Rebeiz 2010). In this context, this monograph is devoted to an in depth discussion of our present knowledge of the Chl biosynthetic pathway. The complexity and biochemical heterogeneity of the Chl biosynthetic pathway and the relationship of this complexity to the structural and biosynthetic complexity of photosynthetic membranes will be emphasized. We will also emphasize in historical perspective, key stages in our understanding of the Chl biosynthetic heterogeneity. The reader should keep in mind that a complex biosynthetic process is only fully understood when it becomes possible to reconstitute in vitro every step of the process. We are not yet at this stage of understanding of thylakoid membrane biogenesis. Considerable progress has been achieved however, in the understanding of numerous facets of the Chl biosynthetic pathway, namely (a) detection and identification of various major and minor metabolic intermediates (b) precursor-product relationships between various intermediates, (c) structure and regulation of many enzymes of the pathway, and (d) the relationship of the Chl biosynthetic heterogeneity to the structural and functional heterogeneity of thylakoid membranes. In addition topics related to the development of Analytical techniques, Cell-free systems, Herbicides, Insecticides, and Cancericides are also discussed.

This volume contains the detailed text of the major lectures and the abstracts of the lectures delivered during the seminar sessions. The subject of our NATO Advanced Study Institute in 1981 was the Application of Modern Dynamics to Celestial Mechanics and Astrodynamics. This Preface will first explain the terminology, then it will review shortly the content of the lectures and will outline how all this was made possible and, finally, it will disclose our future aspirations. Periodicity is an extremely important concept in our field, therefore, it should not be unexpected that our NATO Advanced Study Institute is enjoying a period of three years. Since 1972 we conducted four Institutes with increasing interest and en thusiasm displayed by the participants, lecturers and by this Director. Celestial Mechanics or Dynamical Astronomy is part of Astronomy dealing mostly with the motion of natural celestial bodies. Astrodynamics or Orbital Mechanics is the application of dynamics to problems of Space Engineering and it treats mostly the dynamical behavior of artificial satellites and space probes. The underlying mathematical and dynamical principles are, of course, the same for Celestial Mechanics and for Astrodynamics. This Director of the Institute and Editor of the Proceedings was extremely fortunate to have obtained the cooperation of out standing lecturers who were clear, thorough, understandable, patient to answer questions, but above all, had knowledge of the ix V. Szebehely (ed.). Applications of Modern Dynamics to Celestial Mechanics and Astrodynamics. ix-x."

th Coinciding with the 300 anniversary of the publication of Newton's Principia The International Astronomical Union organized the colloquium No. 96 "The Few Body Problem" in Turku, Finland, June 14.-19.1987. It provided an opportunity to review the progress in the very field which caused Newton a headache, as Victor Szebehely reminded the audience in his introductory remarks. It is a measure of the difficulty and complication of the few body problem that even after 300 years so many aspects of the problem are still unsolved. To quote Szebehely again, "Sir Isaac established the rules, Poincare presented the challenges." Many of these challenges are reviewed in the present proceedings. The gravitational few body problem cuts across the borders of established disciplines. The participants of the colloquium came from departments as different as Aerospace Engineering, Astronomy, Theoretical Physics, Physics, Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, Planetology, Geodesy, Celestial Mechanics and Space Science. The few body problem is a problem of practical significance in many fields and the main aim of the colloquium was to bring together people with research interests in this area, many of whom normally attend different conferences.

Gravitational lensing is by now sufficiently well understood that it can be used as a tool of investigation in other astrophysical areas. Applications include the determination of the Hubble constant, probing the dark matter context of galaxies and the mapping of the universe to the identification of otherwise invisible large-scale structures. Each chapter of the book covers in a self-contained manner a subfield of gravitational lensing, with the double aim of describing in a simple way the basics of the theory and of reviewing the most recent developments as well as applications foreseen in the near future. The book will thus be particularly useful as a high-level textbook for nonspecialist researchers and advanced students wishing to become familiar with the field all the way up to the forefront of research.