The evolution of life on Earth during the last four billion years has not been uniform. Several distinct periods of mass extinction are known, the last led to the extinction of the dinosaurs some 60 million years ago. The causes for these mass extinctions are, at least in some cases, cosmic catastrophes, such as impacts of asteroid sized bodies, nearby supernova explosions etc. It is also well known that the last ice ages are triggered by variations of different parameters of the Earth'r orbit about the Sun. Cosmic catastrophes therefore have to be considered when evolution of life on planets are discussed, especially the question of habitability on them.
In this book we first discuss habitability not only on planets (in the solar system as well in extrasolar planetary systems) but also on satellites of giant planets. Life needs some energy source which is provided either by the central star of a planetary system or by tidal forces exerted by a giant planet on a large satellite of it. On Earth it took about four billion years for intelligent life to evolve. Such a long time span (which is about 1/3 of the total age of the universe) requires rather stable conditions. We therefore investigate in detail how cosmic catastrophes may destroy life, and at the same time lead to the evolution of new species. Catastrophes therefore seem to be essential for evolution to higher lifeforms.
With the recent advances of biology, the detection of extrasolar planetary systems, the great advancement of our knowledge about the chemical and physical processes that enable life, these questions can be answered in much more detail than several years ago. The reader is provided with an introduction into the various topics and for further details recent literature is cited. It will be also stressed that the evolution of life on Earth is not only connected with the existence of a stable long-lived star, the Sun, but also depends on conditions and distribution of mass in the planetary system (the existence of giant planets at a certain distance from the Sun), the existence of the Moon (which stabilizes the Earth's rotational axis), the location of the solar system in the galaxy and other factors. Primitive forms of life, however, may require less stringent environmental conditions as the detection of extremophiles has proven.

This series of reference books describes sciences of different elds in and around geodesy with independent chapters. Each chapter covers an individual eld and describes the history, theory, objective, technology, development, highlights of research and applications. In addition, problems as well as future directions are discussed. The subjects of this reference book include Absolute and Relative Gravimetry, Adaptively Robust Kalman Filters with Applications in Navigation, Airborne Gravity Field Determination, Analytic Orbit Theory, Deformation and Tectonics, Earth Rotation, Equivalence of GPS Algorithms and its Inference, Marine Geodesy, Satellite Laser Ranging, Superconducting Gravimetry and Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry. These are individual subjects in and around geodesy and are for the rst time combined in a unique book which may be used for teaching or for learning basic principles of many subjects related to geodesy. The material is suitable to provide a general overview of geodetic sciences for high-level geodetic researchers, educators as well as engineers and students. Some of the chapters are written to ll literature blanks of the related areas. Most chapters are written by well-known scientists throughout the world in the related areas. The chapters are ordered by their titles. Summaries of the individual chapters and introductions of their authors and co-authors are as follows. Chapter 1 "Absolute and Relative Gravimetry" provides an overview of the gravimetric methods to determine most accurately the gravity acceleration at given locations.

Transport properties of plant cuticles are important for different ?elds of modern plant sciences. Ecologists and physiologists are interested in water losses to the environment via the cuticle. Penetration of plant protecting agents and nutrients into leaves and fruits is relevant for research in agriculture and plant protection. Ecotoxicologists need to know the amounts of environmental xenobiotics which accumulate in leaves and other primary plant organs from the environment. For all of these studies suitable methods should be used, and a sound theoretical basis helps to formulate testable hypotheses and to interpret experimental data. Unnecessary experiments and experiments which yield ambiguous results can be avoided. In this monograph, we have analysed on a molecular basis the movement of molecules across plant cuticles. Based on current knowledge of chemistry and str- ture of cuticles, we have characterised the aqueous and lipophilic pathways, the nature and mechanisms of mass transport and the factors controlling the rate of movement. We have focused on structure-property relationships for penetrant tra- port, which can explain why water and solute permeabilities of cuticles differ widely among plant species. Based on this knowledge, mechanisms of adaptation to en- ronmental factors can be better understood, and rates of cuticular penetration can be optimised by plant physiologists and pesticide chemists.

This book highlights recent advances in and diverse techniques for exploring the plasma membrane's structure and function. It starts with two chapters reviewing the history of membrane research and listing recent advances regarding membrane structure, such as the semi-mosaic model for red blood cell membranes and the protein layer-lipid-protein island model for nucleated tissue cell membranes. It subsequently focuses on the localization and interactions of membrane components, dynamic processes of membrane transport and transmembrane signal transduction. Classic and cutting-edge techniques (e.g. high-resolution atomic force microscopy and super-resolution fluorescence microscopy) used in biophysics and chemistry are presented in a very comprehensive manner, making them useful and accessible to both researchers in the field and novices studying cell membranes. This book provides readers a deeper understanding of the plasma membrane's organization at the single molecule level and opens a new way to reveal the relationship between the membrane's structure and functions, making it essential reading for researchers in various fields.

Adhesion plays a major role in the bacterial lifestyle. Bacteria can adhere to organic and inorganic surfaces, to each other, and of course to host cells during pathogenesis. The focus of this book is: how are such adhesion phenomena best studied? Microbial genetics experiments have greatly enhanced our knowledge of what bacterial factors are involved in adhesion. For numerous reasons, though, biochemical and structural biology knowledge of the molecular interactions involved in adhesion are limited. One major problem has been a lack of interdisciplinary research and understanding in the field. On the one hand, the microbiologists lack detailed knowledge of the biophysical possibilities and have limited access to the frequently expensive instrumentation involved while on the other hand, the experts in these methods frequently do not have access to the biological materials, nor do they necessarily understand the biological questions to be answered. The purpose of this book is thus to overcome this gap in communication between researchers in biology, chemistry and physics and to display the many ways and means to investigate bacterial adhesion. We hope to stimulate new and ground-breaking research.

Optical microscopy and associated technologies advanced quickly after the introduction of the laser. The techniques have stimulated further development of optical imaging theory, including 3-dimensional microscopy imaging theory in spatial and frequency domains, the theory of imaging with ultrashort-pulse beams and aberration theory for high-numerical-aperture objectives. This book introduces these new theories in terms of modern optical microscopy. It consists of seven chapters including an introduction. The chapters are organized to minimize cross-referencing. Comparisons with classical imaging theory are made when the new imaging theory is introduced. The book is intended for senior undergraduate students in courses on optoelectronics, optical engineering, photonics, biophotonics and applied physics, after they have completed modern optics or a similar subject. It is also a reference for other scientists interested in the field.

MINIATURE LASER SOURCE TECHNOLOGY: Properties of High Power Semiconductor Lasers (D.F. Welch). DiodePumped Miniature Solid State Lasers (R. Pratesi). LIGHTTISUE INTERACTIONS AND OPTICS OF TISSUES: Biophysical Bases of LaserTissue Interactions (J.L. Boulnois). Optical and Thermal Modeling of Tissues: Dosimetry (M.J.C. van Gemert et al.). DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES: Holography in Medical Diagnostics (G. von Bally). Laser Reflectance Spectroscopy of tissue (B. Wilson et al.). Monitoring and Imaging of Tissue Blood Flow by Coherent Light Scattering (G.E. Nilsson et al.). Transillumination Imaging (P.C. Jackson et al.). THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES: Lamps: Ultraviolet Radiation Lamps for the Phototherapy of Psoriasis (B.L. Diffey). Phototherapy and Photochemotherapy of Psoriasis (T.B. Fitzpatrick). Light Therapy for Neonatal Jaundice (J.F. Ennever). The Hazards of Cosmetic Tanning with UVA Radiation (A.R. Young). Lasers: The Role of Neodymium Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Nd: YAG) Laser in Medicine (H. Barr et al.). Diode Laser Photocoagulation in Opthamology (R. Brancato et al.). FUTURE DIRECTIONS: Initial Applications and Potential of Miniature Lasers in Medicine (R. Pratesi). Future Trends in Laser Medicine (J.A. Parrish). 8 additional articles. Index of Contributors. Subject Index.

The importance of solid base catalysts has come to be recognized for their environmentally benign qualities, and much significant progress has been made over the past two decades in catalytic materials and solid base-catalyzed reactions. The book is focused on the solid base. Because of the advantages over liquid bases, the use of solid base catalysts in organic synthesis is expanding. Solid bases are easier to dispose than liquid bases, separation and recovery of products, catalysts and solvents are less difficult, and they are non-corrosive. Furthermore, base-catalyzed reactions can be performed without using solvents and even in the gas phase, opening up more possibilities for discovering novel reaction systems. Using numerous examples, the present volume describes the remarkable role solid base catalysis can play, given the ever increasing worldwide importance of "green" chemistry. The reader will obtain an overall view of solid base catalysis and gain insight into the versatility of the reactions to which solid base catalysts can be utilized. The concept and significance of solid base catalysis are discussed, followed by descriptions of various methods for the characterization of solid bases, including spectroscopic methods and test reactions. The preparation and properties of base materials are presented in detail, with the two final chapters devoted to surveying the variety of reactions catalyzed by solid bases.

One of the major challenges in current chemistry is to ?nd molecules able to move charges rapidly and ef?ciently from, for example, one terminus to another one under the control of an external electrical, electrochemical or photochemical stimulus. Nature has provided impressive examples of how these goals are achieved. The photosynthetic reaction center protein, for instance, rapidly moves electrons with near unity quantum ef?ciency across a lipid bilayer membrane using several redox cofactors, and thus, serves as a model for developing biomimetic analogues for applications in ?elds such as photovoltaic devices, molecular electronics and photonic materials. In this context, p-conjugated oligomeric molecular assemblies are of particular interest because they provide ef?cient electronic couplings between electroactive units - donor and acceptor termini - and display wire-like behavior. In order to make a molecule able to behave as an ideal molecular wire different requirements need to be ful?lled: i) matching between the donor (acceptor) and bridge energy levels, ii) a good electronic coupling between the electron donor and acceptor units via the bridge orbitals, and iii) a small attenuation factor. Among the many different p-conjugated oligomers, oligo(p-phenylenevin- enes) (oPPV), have emerged as a particularly promising model system that helps to comprehend/rationalize the basic features of polymeric poly(p-phenyle- vinylenes) and also as a versatile building block for novel materials with che- cally tailored properties.

Extreme Weather Forecasting reviews current knowledge about extreme weather events, including key elements and less well-known variables to accurately forecast them. The book covers multiple temporal scales as well as components of current weather forecasting systems. Sections cover case studies on successful forecasting as well as the impacts of extreme weather predictability, presenting a comprehensive and model agnostic review of best practices for atmospheric scientists and others who utilize extreme weather forecasts.

Epoch-making progress in meteorology and atmospheric science has always been hastened by the development of advanced observational technologies, in particular, radar technology. This technology depends on a wide range of sciences involving diverse disciplines, from electrical engineering and electronics to computer sciences and atmospheric physics. Meteorological radar and atmospheric radar each has a different history and has been developed independently. Particular radar activities have been conducted within their own communities. Although the technology of these radars draws upon many common fields, until now the interrelatedness and interdisciplinary nature of the research fields have not been consistently discussed in one volume containing fundamental theories, observational methods, and results. This book is by two authors who, with long careers in the two fields, one in academia and the other in industry, are ideal partners for writing on the comprehensive science and technology of radars for meteorological and atmospheric observations.

This thesis develops the dispersive optical model into a tool that allows for the assessment of the validity of nuclear reaction models, thereby generating unambiguous removal probabilities of nucleons from valence orbits using the electron-induced proton knockout reaction. These removal probabilities document the substantial quantitative degree in which nuclei deviate from the independent-particle model description. Another outcome reported within is the prediction for the neutron distribution of Ca-40, Ca-48, and Pb-208. The neutron radii of these nuclei have direct relevance for the understanding of neutron stars and are currently the subject of delicate experiments. Unlike other approaches, the current method is consistent with all other relevant data and describes nuclei beyond the independent-particle model. Finally, a new interpretation of the saturation probabilities of infinite nuclear matter is proposed suggesting that the semi-empirical mass formula must be supplemented with a better extrapolation from nuclei to infinite matter.

As a result of significant research over the past 20 years, black holes are now linked to some of the most spectacular and exciting phenomena in the Universe, ranging in size from those that have the same mass as stars to the super-massive objects that lie at the heart of most galaxies, including our own Milky Way. This book first introduces the properties of simple isolated holes, then adds in complications like rotation, accretion, radiation, and magnetic fields, finally arriving at a basic understanding of how these immense engines work.

Black Hole Astrophysics

reviews our current knowledge of cosmic black holes and how they generate the most powerful observed pheonomena in the Universe;

highlights the latest, most up-to-date theories and discoveries in this very active area of astrophysical research;

demonstrates why we believe that black holes are responsible for important phenomena such as quasars, microquasars and gammaray bursts;

explains to the reader the nature of the violent and spectacular outfl ows (winds and jets) generated by black hole accretion.

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Internal wave dynamics in lakes (and oceans) is an important physical component of geophysical fluid mechanics of 'quiescent' water bodies of the Globe. The formation of internal waves requires seasonal stratification of the water bodies and generation by (primarily) wind forces. Because they propagate in basins of variable depth, a generated wave field often experiences transformation from large basin-wide scales to smaller scales. As long as this fission is hydrodynamically stable, nothing dramatic will happen. However, if vertical density gradients and shearing of the horizontal currents in the metalimnion combine to a Richardson number sufficiently small (< 1/4), the light epilimnion water mixes with the water of the hypolimnion, giving rise to vertical diffusion of substances into lower depths. This meromixis is chiefly responsible for the ventilation of the deeper waters and the homogenization of the water through the lake depth. These processes are mainly formed as a result of the physical conditions, but they play biologically an important role in the trophicational state of the lake.

This volume contains the detailed text of the major lectures and the abstracts of the lectures delivered during the seminar sessions. The subject of our NATO Advanced Study Institute in 1981 was the Application of Modern Dynamics to Celestial Mechanics and Astrodynamics. This Preface will first explain the terminology, then it will review shortly the content of the lectures and will outline how all this was made possible and, finally, it will disclose our future aspirations. Periodicity is an extremely important concept in our field, therefore, it should not be unexpected that our NATO Advanced Study Institute is enjoying a period of three years. Since 1972 we conducted four Institutes with increasing interest and en thusiasm displayed by the participants, lecturers and by this Director. Celestial Mechanics or Dynamical Astronomy is part of Astronomy dealing mostly with the motion of natural celestial bodies. Astrodynamics or Orbital Mechanics is the application of dynamics to problems of Space Engineering and it treats mostly the dynamical behavior of artificial satellites and space probes. The underlying mathematical and dynamical principles are, of course, the same for Celestial Mechanics and for Astrodynamics. This Director of the Institute and Editor of the Proceedings was extremely fortunate to have obtained the cooperation of out standing lecturers who were clear, thorough, understandable, patient to answer questions, but above all, had knowledge of the ix V. Szebehely (ed.). Applications of Modern Dynamics to Celestial Mechanics and Astrodynamics. ix-x."

th Coinciding with the 300 anniversary of the publication of Newton's Principia The International Astronomical Union organized the colloquium No. 96 "The Few Body Problem" in Turku, Finland, June 14.-19.1987. It provided an opportunity to review the progress in the very field which caused Newton a headache, as Victor Szebehely reminded the audience in his introductory remarks. It is a measure of the difficulty and complication of the few body problem that even after 300 years so many aspects of the problem are still unsolved. To quote Szebehely again, "Sir Isaac established the rules, Poincare presented the challenges." Many of these challenges are reviewed in the present proceedings. The gravitational few body problem cuts across the borders of established disciplines. The participants of the colloquium came from departments as different as Aerospace Engineering, Astronomy, Theoretical Physics, Physics, Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, Planetology, Geodesy, Celestial Mechanics and Space Science. The few body problem is a problem of practical significance in many fields and the main aim of the colloquium was to bring together people with research interests in this area, many of whom normally attend different conferences.

This book presents in a concise format a simplified and coherent geological-dynamical history of the Indian subcontinent (including Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Southern Tibet and Pakistan). Encompassing a broad array of information related to structure and tectonics, stratigraphy and palaeontology, sedimentation and palaeogeography, petrology and geochemistry, geomorphology and geophysics, it explores the geodynamic developments that took place from the beginning around 3.4 billion years ago to the last about 5,000 years before present. Presented in a distilled form, the observations and deductions of practitioners, this book is meant for teachers, researchers and students of geology, geophysics and geomorphology and practitioners of earth sciences. A comprehensive list of references to original works provides guidance for those seeking further details and who wish to examine selected problems in depth. The book is illustrated with a wealth of maps, cross sections and block diagrams - all simplified and redesigned.

Field Measurements for Environmental Remote Sensing: Instrumentation, Intensive Campaigns, and Satellite Applications is an academic synthesis of invaluable in situ measurements and techniques leveraged by the science of environmental remote sensing. Sections cover in situ datasets and observing methods used for satellite remote sending applications and validation, synthesizing the various techniques utilized by well-established application areas under a common paradigm. The book serves as both a textbook for students (upper-level undergraduate to graduate level) and a reference book for practitioners and researchers in the atmospheric, oceanic and remote sensing fields.

Advanced Spectroscopic Methods to Study Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics presents the latest emerging technologies in spectroscopy and advances in established spectroscopic methods. The book presents a guide to research methods in biomolecular spectroscopy, providing comprehensive coverage of developments in the spectroscopic techniques used to study protein structure and dynamics. Seventeen chapters from leading researchers cover key aspects of spectroscopic methods, with each chapter covering structure, folding, and dynamics. This title will help researchers keep up-to-date on the latest novel methods and advances in established methods.

The Pacific Rim Conference originally started with one research concentration only - binary star research. The first Conference was held in Beijing, China, 1985, the second one in Seoul and Taejon, South Korea, 1990 and the third one in Chiang Mai, Thailand, 1995. In recent years, the conference series evolved into a much broader area of stellar astrophysics. The first such conference was held in Hong Kong in 1997. Kwong-Sang Cheng, a. k. a. one of the three Musketeers, documented the "accidental" development in writing in the Proceedings of the 1997 Pacific Rim Conference on Stellar Astrophysics (Volume 138 of the ASP Conference Series)! The meeting at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology covered three major topics: binary stars, compact stars and solar type stars. The conference was extremely successful. There was a general feeling among the participants that the conference on stellar astrophysics provided a good means to share ideas between such closely related disciplines. Unfortunately after the very successful meeting at HKST, Kwing L. Chan (another Musketeer) thought that he had already served and would not like to chair for another LOC for at least five years! After a few drinks at one of the watering holes in Wan Chai district of Hong Kong, Kwong-Sang Cheng was in very hiRh spirit and volunteered to taking on the responsibility of hosting the 51 Pacific Rim Conference at Hong Kong University in 1999.

This book provides a common theoretical and practical basis to the multifaceted nature of magma mixing. This process represents a fundamental phenomenon both in the evolution of igneous rocks and in triggering explosive volcanic eruptions. The topic is attacked surgically merging field evidence, numerical models, and experiments in order to draw the most complete picture about this natural process. Arguments are discussed in the light of Chaos Theory and Fractal Geometry as new tools to understand the role of magma mixing as a fundamental petrological and volcanological process. The book is intended to be a source of information and a stimulus for new ideas in students, young and possibly more experienced researches.