The PUILS series delivers up-to-date reviews of progress in Ultrafast Intense Laser Science, a newly emerging interdisciplinary research field spanning atomic and molecular physics, molecular science and optical science which has been stimulated by the recent developments in ultrafast laser technologies. Each volume compiles peer-reviewed articles authored by researchers at the forefront of each their own subfields of UILS. Every chapter opens with an overview of the topics to be discussed, so that researchers unfamiliar to the subfield as well as graduate students can grasp the importance and attractions of the research topic at hand. These are followed by reports of cutting-edge discoveries. This eighth volume covers a broad range of topics from this interdisciplinary research field, focusing on molecules interacting with ultrashort and intense laser fields, advanced technologies for the characterization of ultrashort laser pulses and their applications, laser plasma formation and laser acceleration.

"Dynamics of Soft Matter: Neutron Applications" provides an overview of neutron scattering techniques that measure temporal and spatial correlations simultaneously, at the microscopic and/or mesoscopic scale. These techniques offer answers to new questions arising at the interface of physics, chemistry, and biology. Knowledge of the dynamics at these levels is crucial to understanding the soft matter field, which includes colloids, polymers, membranes, biological macromolecules, foams, emulsions towards biological & biomimetic systems, and phenomena involving wetting, friction, adhesion, or microfluidics.

Emphasizing the complementarities of scattering techniques with other spectroscopic ones, this volume also highlights the potential gain in combining techniques such as rheology, NMR, light scattering, dielectric spectroscopy, as well as synchrotron radiation experiments. Key areas covered include polymer science, biological materials, complex fluids and surface science.

Astrophysics is facing challenging aims such as deep cosmology at redshift higher than 10 to constrain cosmology models, or the detection of exoplanets, and possibly terrestrial exoplanets, and several others. It requires unprecedented ambitious R&D programs, which have definitely to rely on a tight cooperation between astrophysics and optics communities. The book addresses most of the most critical interdisciplinary domains where they interact, or where they will do. A first need is to collect more light, i.e. telescopes still larger than the current 8-10 meter class ones. Decametric, and even hectometric, optical (from UV to IR wavelengths) telescopes are being studied. Whereas up to now the light collecting surface of new telescopes was approximately 4 times that of the previous generation, now this factor is growing to 10 to 100. This quantum leap urges to implement new methods or technologies developed in the optics community, both in academic labs and in the industry. Given the astrophysical goals and technological constraints, new generation adaptive optics with a huge number of actuators and laser guide stars devices have to be developed, from theoretical bases to experimental works. Two other newcomers in observational astrophysics are interferometric arrays of optical telescopes and gravitational wave detectors. Up-to-date reviews of detectors and of spectrographs are given, as well as forefront R&D in the field of optical coatings and of guided optics. Possible new ways to handle photons are also addressed, based on quantum physics. More and more signal processing algorithms are a part and parcel of any modern instrumentation. Thus finally the book gives two reviews about wavefront processing and about image restoration and deconvolution algorithms for ill conditioned cases.

The book summarizes international progress over the last few decades in upper atmosphere airglow research. Measurement methods, theoretical concepts and empirical models of a wide spectrum of upper atmospheric emissions and their variability are considered. The book contains a detailed bibliography of studies related to the upper atmosphere airglow. Readers will also benefit from a lot of useful information on emission characteristics and its formation processes found the book.

Ocean engineering is generally considered to be concerned with studies on the effects of the ocean on the land and with the design, construction and operation of vehicles, structures and systems for use in the ocean or marine environment. The practice of engineering differs from that of science in both motivations and objectives. Science seeks understanding of the principles of nature in terms of generalizations expressed as laws and classifications. Engineering seeks the application of knowledge of the physical and natural world to produce a benefit expressed as a device, system, material, and/or process. From the standpoint of the financial sponsors of an engineering project, the ideal approach is one of minimal risk in which only proven knowledge, materials and procedures are employed. There is frequent departure from this ideal in anticipation of the increased benefit expected from a large increase in performance of a structure or device. The process of acquiring this new capability is engineering research. Historically, ocean engineering developed with the application of engineering principles and processes to the design of ships and, later, to the machinery that propels them. In most societies, naval architecture and marine engineering are recognised as the origin of ocean engineering. In fact, the design of a ship constitutes the original systems engineering programme involving hydrodynamics/fluid flow, structural design, machinery design, electrical engineering and so on as well as requiring knowledge of the ocean environment (waves, corrosion, etc.).

The study of planet formation has been revolutionized by recent observational breakthroughs, which have allowed the detection and characterization of extrasolar planets, the imaging of protoplanetary disks, and the discovery of the Solar System's Kuiper Belt. Written for beginning graduate students, this textbook provides a basic understanding of the astrophysical processes that shape the formation of planetary systems. It begins by describing the structure and evolution of protoplanetary disks, moves on to the formation of planetesimals, terrestrial and gas giant planets, and concludes by surveying new theoretical ideas for the early evolution of planetary systems. Covering all phases of planet formation - from protoplanetary disks to the dynamical evolution of planetary systems - this introduction can be understood by readers with backgrounds in planetary science, and observational and theoretical astronomy. It highlights the physical principles underlying planet formation and the areas where more research and new observations are needed.

The determination of when, how, how often and with whom an animal breeds is moving rapidly away from evolutionary pressures and towards human purposes: these include the breeding of around 50 billion mammals and birds for food production annually, the breeding of pedigree dogs and cats, racing dogs and horses, specialised laboratory animal strains and the use of reproductive science to conserve endangered species or breeds and to limit unwanted populations of pests and non-native species. But the ethics and sustainability of this takeover of animals' reproductive lives have been insufficiently examined by either professionals or the public. This book discusses the methods, the motivations and the consequences of human intervention in animal breeding in terms of animal health, behaviour and well-being. It explores where we are now and the choices ahead, and looks to a future where we have more respect for animals as sentient beings and where we could loosen the reins of reproductive control.

The NATO Advanced Study Institute "Paleorift Systems with Emphasis on the Permian Oslo Rift" was held at Sundvollen near Oslo, Norway, 26. July - 5. August, 1977. The meeting included 6 field trips to various parts of the Oslo Region. 70 official participants and 16 observers from 14 countries attended the meeting. The majority of the invited lectures and short research papers and progress reports presented at the meeting are published in two volumes of which this is volume No. I. Lists of content for both volumes are presently included. The guide to the field trips is being published in the Norwegian Geological Survey Series (1978). Oslo, 10. November 1977. Else-Ragnhild Neumann Ivar B. Ramberg Organizing Committee members: O. Eldholm Geological Institute, University G. Grcentsnlie of Oslo J. Naterstad I.B. Ramberg (chairman) Mineralogical-Geological Museum, J.A. Dons B.T. Larsen (secretary) University of Oslo E.-R. Neumann (secretary) K.S. Heier (chairman) Norwegian Geological Survey S. Huseby B. Sundvoll Seismological Observatory, University M.A. Sellevoll of Bergen Geophysics Institute, University of K. Storetvedt Bergen Geological Institute, University of P.M. Ihlen Trondheim Chr. Oftedahl F.M. Vokes NORSAR, 2007 Kjeller E.S. Husebye This volume is Scientific Report No. 39 of the Geodynamics project. The Geodynamics project is an international programme of research on the dynamics and dynamic history of the Earth with emphasis on deep-seated foundations of geological phenomen

1 Grundlagen.- 1.1 Allgemeine Grundlagen.- 1.1.1 Ziele und Aufgaben.- 1.1.2 Methoden.- 1.1.3 Geschichte und Einordnung.- 1.1.3.1 Geschichte der Bauwerksvermessung.- 1.1.3.2 Geschichte des Vermessungswesens.- 1.1.3.3 Geschichte der Architekturphotogrammetrie.- 1.1.4 Rechtliche Grundlagen und Rahmenbedingungen.- 1.1.4.1 Internationale Vereinbarungen und Organisationen.- 1.1.4.2 Baugesetzbuch, Denkmalpflegegesetze, Vermessungsgesetze.- 1.2 Messgroessen und Masseinheiten.- 1.2.1 Strecken.- 1.2.2 Winkel.- 1.3 Bezugssysteme und Koordinaten.- 1.3.1 Bezugsflachen.- 1.3.2 Koordinaten.- 1.3.3 Koordinatensysteme.- 1.3.3.1 Polarkoordinaten.- 1.3.3.2 Lokale Koordinatensysteme.- 1.3.3.3 Regionale Koordinatensysteme.- 1.3.3.4 Globale Koordinatensysteme.- 1.3.3.5 Geographische Koordinaten.- 1.3.3.6 Geozentrische Koordinaten.- 1.3.4 Koordinatentransformationen.- 1.3.4.1 Translation (2D).- 1.3.4.2 Massstabslose Transformation (2D).- 1.3.4.3 AEhnlichkeitstransformation (2D).- 1.3.4.4 Vereinfachte AEhnlichkeitstransformation mit 2 Passpunkten (2D).- 1.3.4.5 Affintransformation (2D).- 1.3.4.6 Weitere ebene Koordinatentransformationen.- 1.3.4.7 Raumliche Koordinatentransformation (3D).- 1.3.5 Festpunktfelder.- 1.3.5.1 Netz trigonometrischer Punkte zur Lagedefinition.- 1.3.5.2 Hoehennetz.- 1.3.6 Vermessungsnetze fur die Bauwerksvermessung.- 1.3.6.1 Netzdesign.- 1.3.6.2 Vermarkung.- 1.3.6.3 Design und Fertigung von Punktsignalisierungen.- 1.3.6.4 Auswahl naturlicher Passpunkte.- 1.3.6.5 Schnurnetz zur temporaren Vermarkung.- 1.3.6.6 Punktubersichten und Einmessskizzen.- 1.4 Fehlerlehre und Statistik.- 1.4.1 Fehlerarten und ihre Wirkung.- 1.4.1.1 Zufallige Fehler.- 1.4.1.2 Systematische Fehler.- 1.4.1.3 Grobe Fehler.- 1.4.2 Fehlerfortpflanzung und Ausgleichsrechnung.- 1.4.3 Rechenscharfe und Rundung.- 1.4.4 Toleranzen im Bauwesen.- 2 Dokumentation von Gebauden und Ensembles.- 2.1 Amtliche Dokumentation.- 2.1.1 Katasterunterlagen.- 2.1.2 Amtliche Karten.- 2.1.3 Lageplan.- 2.1.4 Geoinformationssysteme (GIS).- 2.2 Plane.- 2.2.1 Grundriss.- 2.2.2 Schnitt.- 2.2.3 Ansicht.- 2.2.4 Detaildarstellungen.- 2.2.5 Massstabe und Detaillierungsgrad.- 2.2.6 Materialien und Aufbewahrung.- 2.3 3D-Beschreibungen.- 2.3.1 CAD-Modell.- 2.3.2 Animation.- 2.3.3 Virtual Reality.- 2.3.4 Augmented Reality.- 2.4 Fotografie.- 2.4.1 Analoge Fotografie.- 2.4.1.1 Fotografisches Material.- 2.4.1.2 Kameras.- 2.4.1.3 Objektive.- 2.4.1.4 Licht.- 2.4.1.5 Belichtung.- 2.4.1.6 Archivierungen von Fotomaterialien.- 2.4.2 Digitale Bilder.- 2.4.2.1 Flachensensoren.- 2.4.2.2 Zeilenkameras.- 2.4.2.3 Spezialkameras.- 2.4.3 Scannen analoger Fotovorlagen.- 2.4.4 Digitale Bildverarbeitung.- 2.5 Textliche und hybride Beschreibungen.- 2.5.1 Raumbuch.- 2.5.2 Hypertext Dokumente.- 2.5.3 Informationssystem.- 2.6 Archivierung digitaler Daten.- 2.6.1 Datentrager.- 2.6.2 Datenformate.- 2.6.2.1 Texte.- 2.6.2.2 Datenbanken.- 2.6.2.3 Vektordaten.- 2.6.2.4 Rasterdaten.- 2.6.2.5 Hypermedia.- 3 Erfassung von Messelementen.- 3.1 Messprinzipien.- 3.1.1 Vom-Grossen-ins-Kleine.- 3.1.2 UEberbestimmungen.- 3.1.3 Vermeidung von systematischen Fehlern.- 3.2 Gerate und Instrumente.- 3.2.1 Bauteile, Kleingerate und Zubehoer.- 3.2.1.1 Lote und Libellen.- 3.2.1.2 Fernrohr.- 3.2.1.3 Stative.- 3.2.1.4 Fluchtstab.- 3.2.1.5 Nivellierlatten und Kleingerat.- 3.2.1.6 Aufstellen eines Instruments.- 3.2.2 Winkelmessung.- 3.2.2.1 Bestimmung rechter Winkel.- 3.2.2.2 Theodolit.- 3.2.2.3 Satzmessung.- 3.2.2.4 Berechnung von Richtungswinkeln aus Koordinaten.- 3.2.3 Streckenmessung.- 3.2.3.1 Streckenmessung mit dem Messband.- 3.2.3.2 Optische Streckenmessung.- 3.2.3.3 Elektro-optische Entfernungsmessung (EDM).- 3.2.4 Hoehenmessung.- 3.2.4.1 Einfache Werkzeuge.- 3.2.4.2 Nivellement.- 3.2.4.3 Rotationslaser.- 3.3 Beschaffung einer Vermessungsausrustung.- 4 Messverfahren.- 4.1 Schrittskizze.- 4.2 Handaufmass.- 4.3 Punktbestimmung ohne Theodolit.- 4.3.1 Bogenschlag.- 4.3.2 Einbindeverfahren.- 4.3.3 Orthogonalverfahren.- 4.3.4

This book offers an overview of state-of-the-art in non amplified DNA detection methods and provides chemists, biochemists, biotechnologists and material scientists with an introduction to these methods. In fact all these fields have dedicated resources to the problem of nucleic acid detection, each contributing with their own specific methods and concepts. This book will explain the basic principles of the different non amplified DNA detection methods available, highlighting their respective advantages and limitations. Non-amplified DNA detection can be achieved by adopting different techniques. Such techniques have allowed the commercialization of innovative platforms for DNA detection that are expected to break into the DNA diagnostics market. The enhanced sensitivity required for the detection of non amplified genomic DNA has prompted new strategies that can achieve ultrasensitivity by combining specific materials with specific detection tools. Advanced materials play multiple roles in ultrasensitive detection. Optical and electrochemical detection tools are among the most widely investigated to analyze non amplified nucleic acids. Biosensors based on piezoelectric crystal have been also used to detect unamplified genomic DNA. The main scientific topics related to DNA diagnostics are discussed by an outstanding set of authors with proven experience in this field.

The International Conference on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms is organized every four years, under the auspices of the International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science (IFToMM) and the Czech Society for Mechanics. This eleventh edition of the conference took place at the Technical University of Liberec, Czech Republic, 4-6 September 2012. This volume offers an international selection of the most important new results and developments, in 73 papers, grouped in seven different parts, representing a well-balanced overview, and spanning the general theory of machines and mechanisms, through analysis and synthesis of planar and spatial mechanisms, dynamics of machines and mechanisms, linkages and cams, computational mechanics, rotor dynamics, biomechanics, mechatronics, vibration and noise in machines, optimization of mechanisms and machines, control and monitoring systems of machines, accuracy and reliability of machines and mechanisms, robots and manipulators to the mechanisms of textile machines.

GNSS Seismogeodesy: Theory and Applications combines GNSS and seismology theory and applications to offer both disciplines the background information needed to combine forces. It explores the opportunities for integrating GNSS and seismometers, as well as applications for earthquake and tsunami early warning applications. The book allows seismologists to better understand how GNSS positions are computed and how they can be combined with seismic data and allows geodesists to better understand how to apply GNSS to monitoring of crustal motion. This book is a valuable reference for researchers and students studying the interdisciplinary connection between GNSS geodesy and strong-motion seismology. It will also be ideal for anyone working on new approaches for monitoring and predicting geologic hazards.

For many astronomers, Adaptive Optics is something like a dream coming true. Sinee 1609 and the first observations of celestial bodies performed with the help of an optieal teleseope, astronomers have always fighted to improve the 'resolving power' of their instruments. For a long time, engineers have trimmed the optieal quality of the teleseopes, until they finally reaehed the barrier set by the atmospherie turbulence, a few seconds of are. At that point, the intrinsic quality of the site beeame a major issue to establish new observatories with modern telescopes, and astronomers started to desert the urban skies and to migrate toward mountains and deserts. This quest has been sueeessful and a few privileged sites, where the average natural 'seeing' is close to 0. 5," are now hosting clusters of giant telescopes of the 4 m and soon 10 m class. Yet, this atmospherie limit corresponds in the visible wavelength range to the diffraetion limit of a 20 em telescope only. The loss was severe: a faetor 20 in angular and several hundred in peak energy eoncentration, i. e. in deteetivity of resolution very faint objeets. In the beginning of the seventies, two doors half opened to provide a way out of this dead-end. First, the technique of speckle interferometry (and its various related developments) has allowed to restore the diffraetion limit of large telescopes at visible and infrared wavelengths (see, e. g.

Optics and Lasers is an introduction to applied optics, covering elementary ray and wave optics as well as lasers, holography, fibers, optical waveguides, integrated optics, and quantum noise. Further chapters deal with the physical principles of optical instruments, light sources, and detectors. Numerous examples and exercises with complete solutions help the readers to deepen their knowledge.This completely revised and enlarged edition is intended for advanced undergraduates in laser physics and engineering but will also be helpful for active scientists.

This thesis explores the possibility of searching for new effects of dark matter that are linear in g, an approach that offers enormous advantages over conventional schemes, since the interaction constant g is very small, g<<1. Further, the thesis employs an investigation of linear effects to derive new limits on certain interactions of dark matter with ordinary matter that improve on previous limits by up to 15 orders of magnitude. The first-ever limits on several other interactions are also derived. Astrophysical observations indicate that there is five times more dark matter-an 'invisible' form of matter, the identity and properties of which still remain shrouded in mystery-in the Universe than the ordinary 'visible' matter that makes up stars, planets, dust and interstellar gases. Conventional schemes for the direct detection of dark matter involve processes (such as collisions with, absorption by or inter-conversion with ordinary matter) that are either quartic (g4) or quadratic (g2) in an underlying interaction constant g.

This new volume in the Poincare Seminar Series, describing recent developments at the interface between physics and biology, is directed towards a broad audience of physicists, biologists, and mathematicians. Both the theoretical and experimental aspects are covered, and particular care is devoted to the pedagogical nature of the presentations. The first survey article, by Jean-Francois Joanny and Jacques Prost, describes the theoretical advances made in the study of "active gels," with applications to liquid crystals and cell motility. Jasper van der Gucht and Cecile Sykes then report on recent advances made with biomimetic model systems in the understanding of cytokinesis. The next article, by Jonathon Howard, presents several molecular models for motor proteins, which are compared with experimental results for kinesin. David Lacoste and Kirone Mallick then show theoretically that similar ratchet models of motor proteins naturally satisfy a fundamental time-reversal symmetry, the Gallavotti-Cohen fluctuation relation. Jean-Francois Allemand, David Bensimon and Vincent Croquette and their coauthors describe the latest advances made in the real-time single molecule study of the enzymes involved in DNA replication. Raymond E. Goldstein addresses the problem of understanding, from a physics perspective, the driving forces behind the biological evolution of multicellularity, using Volvocine algae as model organisms. Stanislas Dehaene finally addresses the major challenge of understanding the neuronal mechanism of consciousness, and speculates on the possible theoretical explanations of MRI experiments.

Solar and geomagnetic variability are of considerable interest for scientists of many different persuasions and indeed one has the distinct impression that for the sun at least, there is direct relevance for mankind in general as the interrelation between solar and terrestrial phenomena is starting to be appreciated. From the vast time scale of interest in the variability field, attention was confined to the last 10,000 years in a NATO Advanced Research Workshop held from April 6 - 10, 1987 in Durham, England, and the present publication comprises the lectures given there. Such a Workshop was very timely in view of the impressive new data available from 14C analysis in dated tree rings and lOBe in polar ice cores, from natural palaeomagnetic records in lacustrine sediments and from archaeomagnetic material. Also to be mentioned are new studies of historical accounts of naked-eye sunspots and aurorae. All the data have contributed to improvements in under standing the relative variations of solar properties, the geomagnetic field and climate and it is hoped that this volume will convey the flavour of these advances in knowledge. A feature of the Workshop was the lively discussions which followed so many of the papers. There were several instances of healthy disagreement and this is reflected in the opposing views presented inanumber of the papers published here."

Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Hannover, Germany, July 13-25, 1979

Today western nations consume annually only a small percentage of their resources from the sea, despite the proclamation of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) by many. In contrast, most Pacific Basin Countries obtain more than a quarter of their annual needs from the ocean. Determination of greater rewards from the development of marine resources is markedly inhibited by the limited technical abilities available to locate and assess them. Knowledge of Exclusive Economic Zone resources is schematic and generalised, and a detailed understanding of the geology and processes relating to the economic use of the seafloor is both fragmentary and very basic. Technology for mapping the mineral resources of continental shelves and ocean areas, except in active offshore hydrocarbon provinces, has been largely developed in pursuit of scientific objectives and competence to rapidly appraise economic potential is limited. Similarly, the capability to characterise and evaluate the other resources of the seas is rudimentary. The development of ocean resources will become increasingly urgent as the growth of the world population and the depletion of land reserves combine to enhance demand. Also, increasing environmental constraints will limit the availability of traditional land-based resources; nevertheless, new offshore development must proceed in a manner whereby the marine environment is not plundered but protected and conserved. The challenge to develop ocean resources with responsible environmental stewardship will require greater leadership than the development of the technologies of exploitation.

The sine-Gordon model is a ubiquitous model of Mathematical Physics with a wide range of applications extending from coupled torsion pendula and Josephson junction arrays to gravitational and high-energy physics models. The purpose of this book is to present a summary of recent developments in this field, incorporating both introductory background material, but also with a strong view towards modern applications, recent experiments, developments regarding the existence, stability, dynamics and asymptotics of nonlinear waves that arise in the model. This book is of particular interest to a wide range of researchers in this field, but serves as an introductory text for young researchers and students interested in the topic. The book consists of well-selected thematic chapters on diverse mathematical and physical aspects of the equation carefully chosen and assigned.

The mono graph contains 8 chapters, and their contents cover all principal aspects of the problem: 1. Introduction and brief his tory ofthe radiation problem and background information ofradiation hazard in the near-Earth and interplanetary space. 2. General description of radiation conditions and main sources of charged partic1es in the Earth's environment and interplanetary space, effects of space environment on spacecraft. 3. Basic information about physical conditions in space and main sources of charged particles in the Earth's environment and interplanetary space, in the context of "Space W eather" monitoring and prediction. 4. Trapped radiation belts of the Earth (ERB): theory of their origin, spatial and temporal dynamics, and experimental and statistical models. 5. Galactic cosmic rays (GCR): variations of energetic, temporal and spatial characteristics, long-term modulation, and anomalous cosmic ray (ACR) component, modeling oftheir dynamics. 6. Production of energetic particles (SEPs) at/ne ar the Sun: available databases, acceleration, propagation, and prediction of individual SEP event, statistical models of solar cosmic rays (SCR). 7. Existing empirical techniques of estimating, prediction and modeling of radiation hazard, methodical approaches and constraints, some questions of changes in the Earth's radiation environment due to changes of the solar activity level. 8. Unresolved problems of radiation hazard prediction and spacecraft protection, radiation experiments on board the spacecraft, estimating of radiation conditions during interplanetary missions. Space does not allow us to explain every time the solar-terrestrial and radiation physics nomencIature used in current English-language literature.

Optical Components for Communications is an incomparable book that provides the reader with an understanding of a highly technical subject in a way that is both academically sound and easy to read. Readers with a fundamental understanding of physics from an undergraduate degree will find Dr. Lin's explanation of the principles of quantum physics and optics in this book easy to grasp. This book is also exceptional in its ability to span a subject from the very abstract, fundamental principles of operations to the very specific real world applications of the technology.

Solar-Terrestrial Physics: The Study of Mankind's Newest Frontier Solar-Terrestrial Physics (STP) has been around for 100 years. However, it only became known as a scientific discipline under that name when the physical domain studied by STP became accessible to in situ observation and measurement by man or man-made instruments. Indeed, it was STP that provided the initial scientific driving force for the launching of man-made devices into extra-terrestrial space during the International Geophysical Year - aided of course by the genetically engrained drive of humans to expand their frontiers of knowledge, influence and dominance. We may define STP as the discipline dealing with the variable components of solar corpuscular and electromagnetic emissions, the physical processes governing their sources and their propagation through interplanetary space, and the physical-chemical processes related to their interaction with the Earth and other bodies in interplanetary space. Much of STP deals with fully-or partially-ionized gas flows and related energy, momentum and mass transfer in what now appears as one single system made up of distinct but strongly interacting parts, reaching from the photosphere out to the confines of the heliopause, engulfing planets and other solar system bodies, and dipping deep into 6 the Earth's atmosphere.