These proceedings report the lectures and seminars presented at the NATO Advanced Study Institute on "Optical Properties of Ions in Solids," held at Erice, Italy, June 6-21, 1974. The Institute was the first activity of the International School of Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy of the "Ettore Majorana" Centre for Scientific Culture. The Institute consisted of a series of lectures on optical properties of ions in solids that, starting at a fundamental level, finally reached the current level of research. The sequence of lectures and the organization of the material taught were in keeping with a didactical presentation. In essence the Institute had the two-fold purpose of organizing what was known on the subject, and updating the knowledge in the field. Fif'teen series of lectures for a total of 44 hours were given. Five one-hour seminars and five twenty-minute seminars were presented. A total of 57 participants came from 40 laboratories in the following countries: Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Netherlands; Polatid, Romania, Switzerland, the United Ki gdom, and the United States. The secretaries of the Institute were: D. Pacheco for the scientific aspects and A. La Francesca for the administrative aspects of the meeting. These proceedings report the lectures, the one-hour seminars (abstracts only) and the twenty-minute- seminars (titles only). The proceedings report also the contributions sent by Prof. K. Rebane and Dr. L. A. Rebane who, unfortunately, were not able to come.

In the summer of 1972, I had the privilege and responsibility of organizing a Gordon Conference on the "High-Energy Spectroscopy of Solids." The Thursday evening session focused on future directions for high-energy spectroscopy. The possibilities associated with synchrotron radiation for future research became a central issue. I was asked to choose the members of the panel and chair the session. Although all five members of the panel went on to have distinguished careers using synchrotron radiation, at the time some of them were skeptical about the future role of synchrotron radiation sources in high-energy photon spectroscopy. The discussion became heated, and many members of the audience spoke, both pro and con. One member of the panel produced a detailed argument that synchrotron radiation would never rival standard X-ray tubes. We found out that there were estimates for properties of synchrotrons that differed by orders of magnitude from those of X-ray tubes. That much uncertainty was expressed at a meeting that took place less than twenty years ago. It is hard to believe that, even though at that time synchrotron radiation was already being used for photoemission studies of solids and surfaces and intershell excitations in solids, the potential impact and importance of this area was not fully realized even by the experts. Today synchrotron radiation is one of the primary tools for studying surfaces, and synchrotron radiation has affected many other areas of condensed-matter physics---even superconductivity.

In the past twenty years, the X-ray crystallography of organic molecules has expanded rapidly in two opposite directions. One is towards larger and larger biological macromolecules and the other is towards the fine details of the electronic structure of small molecules. Both advances required the development of more sophisticated methodologies. Both were made possible by the rapid development of computer technology. X-ray diffraction equipment has responded to these demands, in the one case by the ability to measure quickly many thousands of diffraction spectra, in the other by providing instruments capable of very high precision. Molecules interact through their electrostatic potentials and therefore their experimental and theoretical measurement and calculation is an essential component to understanding the electronic structure of chemical and biochemical reactions. In this ASI, we have brought together experts and their students from both the experimental and theoretical sides of this field, in order that they better understand the philosophy and complexity of these two complementary approaches. George A. Jeffrey Department of Crystallography University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260 USA vii CONTENTS LECTURES General Considerations on Methods for Studying Molecular Structures and Electron Density Distributions ..

Crystal defects can no longer be thought of as a scientific curiosity, but must be considered an important aspect of solid-state science. This is largely because many of the more interesting properties of crystalline solids are disproportionately dominated by effects due to a tiny concentration of imperfections in an otherwise perfect lattice. The physics of such lattice defects is not only of significance in a great variety of applications, but is also interesting in its own right. Thus, an extensive science of point defects and dislocations has been constructed during the past two and a half decades. Stimulated by the technological and scientific interest in plasticity, there have appeared in recent years rather a large number of books dealing with dislocations; in the case of point defects, however, only very few broad and extensive treatments have been published. Thus, there are few compre hensive, tutorial sources for the scientist or engineer whose research ac tivities are affected by point defect phenomena, or who might wish to enter the field. It is partially to fill this need that the present treatise aims.

The functionalization of surfaces on the nanoscale is one of the most fascinating and at the same time challenging topics in science. It is the key to tailoring catalysts, sensors, or devices for solar energy conversion, whose functional principle is based on the interaction of an active solid surface with another (liquid or gaseous) phase. As an example, planar transition metal complexes adsorbed on solid supports are promising candidates for novel heterogeneous catalysts. An important feature of these catalysts, compared to supported metal clusters, is the fact that the active sites, i. e. , the coordinated metal centers with their vacant axial coordination sites, are well de?ned and uniform. Metalloporphyrinoids are particularly suitable in this respect because they combine a structure forming element-the rigid molecular frame, which often induces long range order-with an active site, the coordinated metal ion. Its planar coordination environment leaves two axial coordination sites available for additional ligands. If adsorbed on a surface, one of these axial sites is occupied by the underlying substrate. The resulting electronic interaction with the surface can be used to tailor the electronic structure and thereby the reactivity of the metal center. The remaining site is free for the attachment of molecules (sensor functionality) and/or operates as a reaction center (single-site catalysis). Prototype examples are omnipresent in nature, where in particular metallo-tetrapyrrols play a decisive role in important biological processes, with the most prominent examples being iron porphyrins in heme, magnesium porphyrins in chlorophyll, and cobalt corrin in vitamin B12.

Research on glassy semiconductors continues to expand every year. This is evidenced by the ever-increasing number of articles devoted to glassy semiconductors and published in a great variety of periodicals. The time has come to systematize and generalize the abundant published experimental material. The first review of the experimental data on glass formation and the physicochemical and physical properties of chalcogenide glassy semi conductors was published by B. T. Kolorniets [1]. Glass formation in chalcogenide systems is the subject of a section in a monograph by Rawson [2]. In 1972 the Leningrad University published the author's books [3] dealing with the regularities of glass formation in cha1cogenide systems and containing a systematized exposition of some physicochemical properties of glassy cha1cogenide semiconductors. The monograph presented mainly results of research performed by the Semiconductor Chemistry Laboratory staff of the Leningrad University. These investigations were started at the initiative and under the dircction of Professor R. L. Myuller and wcre continued under the author's direction. The present monograph is a revised and substantially supplementcd version of the aforementioned publication. However, the extensive experimental material in the literature is far from completely presented. It contains mainly data on the research performed by the staff of the laboratory headed by the author. However, data obtained by other Soviet and foreign workers are represented to a greater degree in this book than in the preceding edition.

This report presents an account of the course "Nonlinear Spectroscopy of Solids: Advances and Applications" held in Erice, Italy, from June 16 to 30, 1993. This meeting was organized by the International School of Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy of the "Ettore Majorana" Centre for Scientific Culture. The purpose of this course was to present and discuss physical models, mathematical formalisms, experimental techniques, and applications relevant to the subject of nonlinear spectroscopy of solid state materials. The universal availability and application of lasers in spectroscopy has led to the widespread observation of nonlinear effects in the spectroscopy of materials. Nonlinear spectroscopy encompasses many physical phenomena which have their origin in the monochromaticity, spectral brightness, coherence, power density and tunability of laser sources. Conventional spectroscopy assumes a linear dependence between the applied electromagnetic field and the induced polarization of atoms and molecules. The validity of this assumption rests on the fact that even the most powerful conventional sources of light produce a light intensity which is not strong enough to equalize the rate of stimulated emission and that of the experimentally observed decay. A different situation may arise when laser light sources are used, particularly pulsed lasers. The use of such light sources can make the probability of induced emission comparable to, or even greater than, the probability of the observed decay; in such cases the nonlinearity of the response of the system is revealed by the experimental data and new properties, not detectable by conventional spectroscopy, will emerge.

EPR Spectroscopy in Catalysis, by Sabine Van Doorslaer und Damien M. Murphy Radicals in Flavoproteins, by Erik Schleicher und Stefan Weber EPR Spectroscopy in Polymer Science, by Dariush Hinderberger EPR in Protein Science, by Intrinsically Disordered Proteins, by Malte Drescher Site-Directed Spin Labeling of Membrane Proteins, by Enrica Bordignon Structure and Dynamics of Nucleic Acids, by Ivan Krsti, Burkhard Endeward, Dominik Margraf, Andriy Marko und Thomas F Prisner New Directions in Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy on Molecular Nanomagnets, by J. van Slageren"

Holographic Interferometry provides a valuable and up-to-date source of information in the rapidly expanding field. The eight specialists` contributions cover the principles and methods currently in use. The scope of the book has been limited to the study of opaque object and ample space has been devoted to a comprehensive treatment of the phenomena of fringe formation, with a particular emphasis on the quantitative evaluation of the holographic interference fringe patterns. The emergence of computer-aided fringe analysis and phase-shifting techniques have simplified considerably the quantative real-time measurements of object shapes and deformations. The last two chapters provide a reasonably detailedoverview of full-field holographic methods for the measurement of shapes, displacements, dervatives, difference displacements and vibrations.

Application of NMR and Molecular Docking in Structure-Based Drug Discovery, by Jaime L. Stark and Robert Powers NMR as a Unique Tool in Assessment and Complex Determination of Weak Protein-Protein Interactions, by Olga Vinogradova and Jun Qin The Use of Residual Dipolar Coupling in Studying Proteins by NMR, by Kang Chen und Nico Tjandra NMR Studies of Metalloproteins, by Hongyan Li and Hongzhe Sun Recent Developments in 15N NMR Relaxation Studies that Probe Protein Backbone Dynamics, by Rieko Ishima Contemporary Methods in Structure Determination of Membrane Proteins by Solution NMR, by Tabussom Qureshi and Natalie K. Goto Protein Structure Determination by Solid-State NMR, by Xin Zhao Dynamic Nuclear Polarization: New Methodology and Applications, by Kong Hung Sze, Qinglin Wu, Ho Sum Tse and Guang Zhu

Concepts in Projection-Reconstruction, by Ray Freeman and riks Kup e.- Automated Projection Spectroscopy and Its Applications, by Sebastian Hiller and Gerhard Wider.- Data Sampling in Multidimensional NMR: Fundamentals and Strategies, by Mark W. Maciejewski, Mehdi Mobli, Adam D. Schuyler, Alan S. Stern and Jeffrey C. Hoch.- Generalized Fourier Transform for Non-Uniform Sampled Data, by Krzysztof Kazimierczuk, Maria Misiak, Jan Stanek, Anna Zawadzka-Kazimierczuk and Wiktor Ko mi ski.- Applications of Non-Uniform Sampling and Processing, by Sven G. Hyberts, Haribabu Arthanari and Gerhard Wagner"

In the course of the development of surface science, advances have been identified with the introduction of new diagnostic probes for analytical characterization of the adsorbates and microscopic structure of surfaces and interfaces. Among the most recently de veloped techniques, and one around which a storm of controversy has developed, is what has now been earmarked as surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Within this phenomenon, molecules adsorbed onto metal surfaces under certain conditions exhibit an anomalously large interaction cross section for the Raman effect. This makes it possible to observe the detailed vibrational signature of the adsorbate in the ambient phase with an energy resolution much higher than that which is presently available in electron energy loss spectroscopy and when the surface is in contact with a much larger amount of material than that which can be tolerated in infrared absorption experiments. The ability to perform vibrational spectroscopy under these conditions would lead to a new understanding about the chemical identity, geome try, and bonding of adsorbed material at a level previously unacces sible. It is for these reasons that the last few years have brought an explosion of activity surrounding the exploitation of SERS. The search for the origines) of the anomalous enhancement has given rise to a research sub-activity of its own. Efforts to explain the en hancement have led to an increased understanding of the whole range of phenomena associated with the interaction of photons with adsor bates and metal surfaces."

here exists a gap in the present literature on quantum mechanics T and its application to solids. It has been difficult to find an intro ductory textbook which could take a student from the elementary quan tum mechanical ideas of the single-particle Schrodinger equations, through the formalism and new physical concepts of many-body theory, to the level where the student would be equipped to read the scientific literature and specialized books on specific topics. The present book, which I believe fills this gap, grew out of two courses which I have given for a number of years at the University of Cambridge: "Advanced Quan tum Mechanics," covering the quantization of fields, representations, and creation and annihilation operators, and "Many Body Theory," on the application of quantum field theory to solids. The first course is a final-year undergraduate physics course while the second is a joint first and fourth-year undergraduate math year postgraduate physics course ematics course. In an American context this would closely correspond to a graduate course at the masters level. In writing this book I have tried to stress the physical aspects of the mathematics preferring where possible to introduce a technique by using a simple illustrative example rather than develop a purely formal treat ment. In order to do this I have assumed a certain familiarity with solid state physics on the level of a normal undergraduate course, but the book should also be useful to those without such a background."

This volume comprised the proceedings of a NATO Advanced Study Institute held in Geilo, Norway between 29 March and 9 April 1987. Al though the principal support for the meeting was provided by the NATO Cornrni ttee for Scientific Affairs, a number of additional sponsors also contributed. Additional funds were received from: Institutt for Energiteknikk (Norway) The Norwegian Research Council for Science and Humanities NORDITA (Denmark) VISTA (Norway) The organizing cornrni ttee would like to take this opportunity to thank all sponsors for their help in promoting an exciting and rewarding meeting. This Study Institute was the ninth of a series of meetings held in Geilo on subjects related to phase transitions and was a natural successor to the 1985 meeting on Scaling Phenomena in Disordered Systems. Many of the subjects discussed at the latter meeting were revisited in 1987, with time dependence as an added feature. Often the common theme was the concept of fractals first introduced into statistical physics some six years ago. However, by no means all disordered systems can be forced into a fractal framework, and many of the lectures reinforced this lesson.

Reviews in Fluorescence 2009, the sixth volume of the book serial from Springer, serves as a comprehensive collection of current trends and emerging hot topics in the field of fluorescence and closely related disciplines. It summarizes the year's progress in fluorescence and its applications, with authoritative analytical reviews specialized enough to be attractive to professional researchers, yet also appealing to the wider audience of scientists in related disciplines of fluorescence. Reviews in Fluorescence offers an essential reference material for any lab working in the fluorescence field and related areas. All academics, bench scientists, and industry professionals wishing to take advantage of the latest and greatest in the continuously emerging field of fluorescence will find it an invaluable resource. Reviews in Fluorescence 2009 topics include: Hot electron-Induced Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence. Time-correlated, single-photon counting methods in endothelial cell mechanobiology. Origin of Tryptophan Fluorescence. Protein Folding, Unfolding and Aggregation Processes revealed by Rapid Sampling of Time-Domain Fluorescence.

Electron emission is a fundamental phenomenon which accompanies most interactions of energetic particles with solid surfaces. Not only is it a special effect which for almost ninety years has attracted the interest of physicists, but it is also of acute importance in such fields as radiation effects and transport phenomena in solids (e.g., radiation biology), plasma-surface interactions, microtechnology, surface analysis, ion microscopies, particle detector development and others. While "Volume I" emphasizes the theoretical description of the mechanisms of electron emission, this volume reviews modern experimental trends and aspects of the phenomenon, e.g., kinetic electron emission from massive solids and from thin foils under bombardment with positive, negative, and neutral particles, and the measurement of electron statistics in connection with potential and kinetic emission due to slow singly and multiply charged projectiles.

The International Workshop on Holography in Medicine and Biology was held in MUnster, Federal Republic of Germany, on March 14th and 15th, 1979, at the Clinic of Otorhinolaryngology of the Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat within the frame of the Symposium 79 of the Sonderforschungsbereich 88 "Teratology and Rehabilitation of Patients with Multiple Handicaps'' of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. In fact, this workshop was not the first meeting dealing exclusively with biomedical applications of holography and related techniques. The very first symposium in this field was organized by Prof. P. Greguss and took place in New York in 1973. A second one was held in MUnster in 1976 with the objec tive to improve the communication among the at that time rather isolatedly working groups in this research domain. The great response to that meeting gave encouragement to the organization of another one in MUnster, this time on a more extended international base. Thus, this workshop attracted 85 scientists from 13 countries, i.e. Austria, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, Fed. Rep. of Germany, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Japan, Norway, Sweden, The Netherlands, USA, Yugoslavia."

Arbeitshypothesen sind revidierbar, deklarierten Wahrheiten nicht, sie verkalken zum System; Arbeitshypothesen passen sich den Menschen an, den deklarierten Wahrheiten wird der Mensch angepajJt; die ersten kann mann verwerfen, von den anderen wird man verworfen. FRIEDRICH DORRBNMATI, Nachgedanken Working hypotheses can be revised,' declared truths cannot-they calcify into dogma. Working hypotheses adapt to people-people adapt to declared truths. One can reject the first but be rejected by the latter. The concept of electron crystallography, i.e., the quantitative use of electron diffraction intensities to solve crystal structures, is by no means new. Based on extensive pioneering efforts on organic and inorganic substances, two major works on electron diffraction structure analysis (or "electronography" as it was then known in Moscow) appeared in English translation during the 19608. These books are B. K. Vainshtein, Strukturnaya Elektronografiya (Structure Analysis by Electron Diffrac- tion, translated by E. Feigl andJ. A. Spink, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1964), and B. B.

Quantum information science is a new field of science and technology which requires the collaboration of researchers coming from different fields of physics, mathematics, and engineering: both theoretical and applied. Quantum Computing and Quantum Bits in Mesoscopic Systems addresses fundamental aspects of quantum physics, enhancing the connection between the quantum behavior of macroscopic systems and information theory. In addition to theoretical quantum physics, the book comprehensively explores practical implementation of quantum computing and information processing devices. On the experimental side, this book reports on recent and previous observations of quantum behavior in several physical systems, coherently coupled Bose-Einstein condensates, quantum dots, superconducting quantum interference devices, Cooper pair boxes, and electron pumps in the context of the Josephson effect. In these systems, the book discusses all required steps, from fabrication through characterization to the final basic implementation for quantum computing.

In the last decades, new experimental and numerical techniques have taken many advanced features of porous media mechanics down to practical engineering applications. This happened in areas that sometimes were not even suspected to be open to engineering ideas at all. The challenge that often faces engineers in the field of geomechanics, biomechanics, rheology and materials science is the translation of ideas existing in one field to solutions in the other. The purpose of the IUTAM symposium from which this proceedings volume has been compiled was to dive deep into the mechanics of those porous media that involve mechanics and chemistry, mechanics and electromagnetism, mechanics and thermal fluctuations of mechanics and biology. The different sections have purposely not been formed according to field interest, but on the basis of the physics involved.

Many fundamental aspects of the methods used in mass spectrometry are here presented by outstanding scientists, with reference to very recent developments. The principles and applications of electrospray, ion spray and MALDI ionization technique are presented, together with optimised GC/MS interfacing systems and tools for quantitative analysis. A comprehensive treatment of modern instrumentation for mass analysis and detection is also included. The major part of the book deals with bioanalytical applications to peptides, proteins, oligonucleotides, polysaccharides, lipids and plant metabolites. Several papers are devoted to the evaluation of adduct formation between DNA and carcinogens. Environmental applications are also included, with examples of some specific cases. Fundamentals and applications are treated with the same degree of depth: the first two parts of the book therefore provide a basis for the understanding of the biomolecular applications section. Audience: Ideal for advanced graduate students of chemistry who have learned some basic mass spectrometry. Also useful for Ph.D. students in chemistry, biology and medicine. Of value to researchers in academic and industrial laboratories.

High density digital magnetic and magneto-optical storage devices are widely used in audio, video, and data processing information technology, as well as in CAD/CAM computer systems. These widespread uses generate a continually increasing demand for both increased information storage densities and capacities, and for reduced access times. Hence, the materials engineering of high density storage media, with a high signal to noise ratio, and the associated design of sophisticated read and write heads, form the basis of major technological research. This research is especially complex because, ideally, the recorded information should be both erasable and, at the same time, secure and accessible over periods of many decades. As a result, research on these complex problems requires a multidisciplinary approach which utilizes the expertise in such widely differing fields as organic, inorganic, and solid state chemistry, metallurgy, solid state physics, electrical and mechanical engineering, and systems analysis. Often, further research specialization is necessary in each of these different disciplines. For instance, solid state physics and chemistry address the problems of crystallographic structure and phase diagram determination, magnetism, and optics, but more advanced research methods, such as high resolution electron microscopy and electronic band structure calculations, are necessary to understand the microstructure of particulate recording media or the electronic spectra of magneto-optical recording media.

This NATO Advanced Study Institute, held in Geilo between March 29th and April 9th 1981, was the sixth in a series devoted to the subject of phase transitions and instabilities. The present institute was intended to provide a forum for discussion of the importance of nonlinear phenomena associated with instabilities in systems as seemingly disparate as ferroelectrics and rotating buckets of oil. Ten years ago, at the first Geilo school, the report of a central peak in the fluctuation spectrum of SrTi0 close to its 3 106 K structural phase transition demonstrated that the simple soft-mode theory of such transitions was incomplete. The missing ingredient was the essential nonlinearity of the system. Parti cipants at this year's Geilo school heard assessments of a decade of experimental and theoretical effort which has been expended to elucidate the nature of this nonlinearity. The importance of order ed clusters and the walls which bound them was stressed in this con text. A specific type of wall, the soliton, was discussed by a number of speakers. New experimental results which purport to demonstrate the existence of solitons in a one-dimensional ferromagnet were presented. A detailed discussion was given of the role of solitons in transport phenomena in driven multistable systems, typified by a sine-Gordon chain."

The purposes of this book are many. First, we must point out that it is not a device book, as a proper treatment of the range of important devices would require a much larger volume even without treating the important physics for submicron devices. Rather, the book is written principally to pull together and present in a single place, and in a (hopefully) uniform treatment, much of the understanding on relevant physics for submicron devices. Indeed, the understand ing that we are trying to convey through this work has existed in the literature for quite some time, but has not been brought to the full attention of those whose business is the making of submicron devices. It should be remarked that much of the important physics that is discussed here may not be found readily in devices at the 1.0-JLm level, but will be found to be dominant at the O.I-JLm level. The range between these two is rapidly being covered as technology moves from the 256K RAM to the 16M RAM chips."

This book provides a compilation of important optical techniques applied to experiments in heat and mass transfer, multiphase flow and combustion. The emphasis of this book is on the application of these techniques to various engineering problems. The contributions are aiming to provide practicing engineers, both in industry and research, with the recent state of science in the application of advanced optical measurements. The book is written by selected specialists representing leading experts in this field who present new information for the possibilities of these techniques and give stimulation of new ideas for their application.