The recent discovery of high-temperature superconductivity has resulted in a remarkable growth in the amount of research and the number of researchers working in this exciting field. Superconductivity is not a new phenomenon: in 1991 it will be 80 years old. Even though it was the newer discoveries which motivated us to write this book, the book itself is mainly a description of the fundamentals of the phenomenon. The book is written for a very broad audience, including students, engin eers, teachers, scientists, and others who are interested in learning about this exciting frontier of science. We have focused on the qualitative aspects, so that the reader can develop a basic understanding of the fundamental physics without getting bogged down in the details. Because of this approach, our list of refer ences is not comprehensive, and it is supplemented with a summary of additional reading consisting of monographs and selected review articles. (The articles we have referenced were either not reflected in the review articles on monographs or were milestones in the development of the field. ) In addition, some of the sections which can be skipped during the first reading have been marked with asterisks (*). Until recently, superconductivity was considered to belong to the field of low-temperature physics. This field was born, simultaneously with quantum physics, at the beginning of this century. Initially these two contemporaneous fields developed independently, but they soon became strongly coupled."

These volumes contain the invited and contributed talks of the first general Conference of the Condensed Matter Division of the European Physical Society, which took place at the campus of the University of Antwerpen (Universitaire Instelling Antwerpen) from April 9 till 11, 1980. The invited talks give a broad perspective of the current state in Europe of research in condensed matter physics. New developments and advances in experiments as well as theory are reported for 28 topics. Some of these developments, such as the recent stabilization of mono-atomic hydrogen, with the challenging prospect of Bose condensation, can be considered as major break throughs in condensed matter physics. Of the 65 invited lecturers, 54 have submitted a manuscript. The remaining talks are published as abstracts. The contents of this first volume consists of 9 plenary papers. Among the topics treated in these papers are: - electronic structure computations of iron the density functional theory hydrogen in amorphous Si topologically disordered materials nuclear antiferromagnetism stabilization of mono-atomic hydrogen gas covalent and metallic glasses nonlinear excitations in ferroelectrics.

Helium Ion Microscopy: Principles and Applications describes the theory and discusses the practical details of why scanning microscopes using beams of light ions - such as the Helium Ion Microscope (HIM) - are destined to become the imaging tools of choice for the 21st century. Topics covered include the principles, operation, and performance of the Gaseous Field Ion Source (GFIS), and a comparison of the optics of ion and electron beam microscopes including their operating conditions, resolution, and signal-to-noise performance. The physical principles of Ion-Induced Secondary Electron (iSE) generation by ions are discussed, and an extensive database of iSE yields for many elements and compounds as a function of incident ion species and its energy is included. Beam damage and charging are frequently outcomes of ion beam irradiation, and techniques to minimize such problems are presented. In addition to imaging, ions beams can be used for the controlled deposition, or removal, of selected materials with nanometer precision. The techniques and conditions required for nanofabrication are discussed and demonstrated. Finally, the problem of performing chemical microanalysis with ion beams is considered. Low energy ions cannot generate X-ray emissions, so alternative techniques such as Rutherford Backscatter Imaging (RBI) or Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) are examined.

Energy-Filtering Transmission Electron Microscopy (EFTEM) presents a summary of the electron optics, the electron-specimen interactions, and the operation and contrast modes of this new field of analytical electron microscopy. The electron optics of filter lenses and the progress in the correction of aberrations are discussed in detail. An evaluation of our present knowledge of plasmon losses and inner-shell ionisations is of increasing interest for a quantitative application of EFTEM in materials and life sciences. This can be realized not only by filtering the elastically scattered electrons but mainly by imgaging and analyzing with inelastically scattered electrons at different energy losses up to 2000 eV. The strength of EFTEM is the combination of the modes EELS, ESI, ESD and REM.

The NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Coherent Optical Processes in Semiconductors was held in Cambridge, England on August 11-14,1993. The idea of holding this Workshop grew from the recent upsurge in activity on coherent transient effects in semiconductors. The development of this field reflects advances in both light sources and the quality of semiconductor structures, such that tunable optical pulses are now routinely available whose duration is shorter than the dephasing time for excitonic states in quantum wells. It was therefore no surprise to the organisers that as the programme developed, there emerged a heavy emphasis on time-resolved four-wave mixing, particularly in quantum wells. Nevertheless, other issues concerned with coherent effects ensured that several papers on related problems contributed some variety. The topics discussed at the workshop centred on what is a rather new field of study, and benefited enormously by having participants representing many of the principal groups working in this area. Several themes emerged through the invited contributions at the Workshop. One important development has been the careful examination of the two-level model of excitonic effects; a model which has been remarkably successful despite the expected complexities arising from the semiconductor band structure. Indeed, modest extensions to the two level model have been able to offer a useful account for some of the complicated polarisation dependence of four-wave mixing signals from GaAs quantum wells. This work clearly is leading to an improved understanding of excitons in confined systems.

This volume contains the proceedings of the first NATO Science Forum "Highlights of the Eighties and Future Prospects in Condensed Matter Physics" (sponsored by the NATO Scientific Affairs Division), which took place in September, 1990, in the pleasant surroundings provided by the Hotel du Palais at Biarritz, France. One hundred distinguished physicists from seventeen countries, including six Nobellaureates, were invited to participate in the four and a half day meeting. Focusing on three evolving frontiers: semiconductor quantum structures, including the subject of the quantumHall effect (QHE), high temperature superconductivity (HiTc) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), the Forum provided an opportunity to evaluate, in depth, each of the frontiers, by reviewing the progress made during the last few years and, more importantly, exploring their implications for the future. Though serious scientists are not "prophets," all of the participants showed a strong interest in this unique format and addressed the questions of future prospects, either by extrapolating from what has been known, or by a stretch of their "educated" imagination.

Microcharacterization of materials is a rapidly advancing field. Among the many electron and ion probe techniques, the cathodoluminescence mode of an electron probe instrument has reached a certain maturity, which is reflected by an increas ing number of publications in this field. The rapid rate of progress in applications of cathodoluminescence techniques in characterizing inorganic solids has been especially noticeable in recent years. The main purpose of the book is to outline the applications of cath odoluminescence techniques in the assessment of optical and electronic proper ties of inorganic solids, such as semiconductors, phosphors, ceramics, and min erals. The assessment provides, for example, information on impurity levels derived from cathodoluminescence spectroscopy, analysis of dopant concentra tions at a level that, in some cases, is several orders of magnitude lower than that attainable by x-ray microanalysis, the mapping of defects, and the determination of carrier lifetimes and the charge carrier capture cross sections of impurities. In order to make the book self-contained, some basic concepts of solid-state phys ics, as well as various cathodoluminescence techniques and the processes leading to luminescence phenomena in inorganic solids, are also described. We hope that this book will be useful to both scientists and graduate students interested in microcharacterization of inorganic solids. This book, however, was not intended as a definitive account of cathodoluminescence analysis of in organic solids. In considering the results presented here, readers should re member that many materials have properties that vary widely as a function of preparation conditions."

There is considerable interest, both fundamental and technological, in the way atoms and molecules interact with solid surfaces. Thus the description of heterogeneous catalysis and other surface reactions requires a detailed understand ing of molecule-surface interactions. The primary aim of this volume is to provide fairly broad coverage of atoms and molecules in interaction with a variety of solid surfaces at a level suitable for graduate students and research workers in condensed matter physics, chemical physics, and materials science. The book is intended for experimental workers with interests in basic theory and concepts and had its origins in a Spring College held at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Miramare, Trieste. Valuable background reading can be found in the graduate-Ievel introduction to the physics of solid surfaces by ZangwilI(1) and in the earlier works by Garcia Moliner and F1ores(2) and Somorjai.(3) For specifically molecule-surface interac tions, additional background can be found in Rhodin and Ertl(4) and March.(S) V. Bortolani N. H. March M. P. Tosi References 1. A. Zangwill, Physics at Surfaces, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1988). 2. F. Garcia-Moliner and F. Flores, Introduction to the Theory of Solid Surfaces, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1979). 3. G. A. Somorjai, Chemistry in Two Dimensions: Surfaces, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York (1981). 4. T. N. Rhodin and G. Erd, The Nature of the Surface Chemical Bond, North-Holland, Amsterdam (1979). 5. N. H. March, Chemical Bonds outside Metal Surfaces, Plenum Press, New York (1986)."

This book presents an account of the course "Disordered Solids: Structures and Processes" held in Erice, Italy, from June 15 to 29, 1987. This meeting was organized by the International School of Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy of the "Ettore Majorana" Centre for Scientific Culture. The objective of this course was to present the advances in physical modelling, mathematical formalism and experimental techniques relevant to the interpretation of the structures of disordered solids and of the physical processes occurring therein. Traditional solid-state physics treats solids as perfect crystals and takes great advantage of their symmetry, by means of such mathematical formalisms as the reciprocal lattice, the Brillouin zone, and the powerful tools of group theory. Even if in reality no solid is a perfect crystal, this theoretical approach has been of great usefulness in describing solids: deviations from perfect order have been treated as perturbations of the ideal model. A new situation arises with truly disordered solids where any vestige of long range order has disappeared. The basic problem is that of describing these systems and gaining a scientific understanding of their physical properties without the mathematical formalism of traditional solid state physics. While some of the old approaches may occasionally remain valid (e. g. chemical bonding approach for amorphous solids), the old ways will not do. Disorder is not a perturbation: with disorder, something basically new may be expected to appear."

This volume contains the proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Band Structure Engineering in Semiconductor Microstructures held at Il Ciocco, Castelvecchio Pascali in Tuscany between 10th and 15th April 1988. Research on semiconductor microstructures has expanded rapidly in recent years as a result of developments in the semiconductor growth and device fabrication technologies. The emergence of new semiconductor structures has facilitated a number of approaches to producing systems with certain features in their electronic structure which can lead to useful or interesting properties. The interest in band structure engineering has stimd ated a variety of physical investigations and nove 1 device concepts and the field now exhibits a fascinating interplay betwepn pure physics and device technology. Devices based on microstruc tures are useful vehicles for fundamental studies but also new device ideas require a thorough understanding of the basic physics. Around forty researchers gathered at I1 Ciocco in the Spring of 1988 to discuss band structure engineering in semiconductor microstructures.

Since the study of the solid state began it has been necessary to use increasingly refined experimental techniques, of which electron spin resonance is an important example, in the effort to gain information concerning the structure and properties of an immense and varied range of solids. In the last two decades the great commercial demand for solid-state electronic devices has stimulated research into the funda mental properties of semiconductors. At the same time as semiconductor devices were becoming techno logically important, the technique of electron spin resonance was first being used on a large scale, principally at the Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford. Both solid-state physics and electron spin resonance have now reached the stage where they are useful to each other, primarily in the realm of the atomic properties of matter. Dr Lancaster's book is one of a series of monographs that aims at covering as comprehensively as possible the field of electron spin resonance. His book has been written for those who wish to know some thing about the way in which the electron spin resonance technique has been used in the study of semiconductors. It also has value for specialists who may need an authoritative work of reference, and for workers in allied subjects who wish to use this technique to further their work. Much of his treatise deals with electron spin resonance in crystals of silicon and germanium containing specific impurities, as these materials are of greatest interest. Practical results are discussed wherever possible."

The properties of soft-matter thin films (e.g. liquid films, polymer coatings, Langmuir-Blodgett multilayers) nowadays play an important role in materials science. They are also very exciting with respect to fundamental questions: In thin films, liquids and polymers may be considered as trapped in a quasi-two-dimensional geometry. This confined geometry is expected to alter the properties and structures of these materials considerably. This volume is dedicated to the scattering of x-rays by soft-matter interfaces. X-ray scattering under grazing angles is the only tool to investigating these materials on atomic and mesoscopic length scales. A review of the field is presented with many examples.

This book gives a detailed overview on this new and exciting field at the boundary of physics and chemistry. Laser-induced ultrafast molecuar dynamics is presented for many textbook-like examples of model molecules and clusters. Experimental results on phenomena like wave packet propagation, ultrafast photodissociation and femtosecond structural redistribution are presented and described theoretically.

This volume and its two companion volumes, entitled Tetrahedrally-Bonded Amorphous Semiconductors and Physics of Disordered Materials, are our way of paying special tribute to Sir Nevill Mott and to express our heartfelt wishes to him on the occasion of his eightieth birthday. Sir Nevill has set the highest standards as a physicist, teacher, and scientific leader. Our feelings for him include not only the respect and admiration due a great scientist, but also a deep affection for a great human being, who possesses a rare combination of outstanding personal qualities. We thank him for enriching our lives, and we shall forever carry cherished memories of this noble man. Scientists best express their thanks by contributing their thoughts and observations to a Festschrift. This one honoring Sir Nevill fills three volumes, with literally hundreds of authors meeting a strict deadline. The fact that contributions poured in from all parts of the world attests to the international cohesion of our scientific community. It is a tribute to Sir Nevill's stand for peace and understanding, transcending national borders. The editors wish to express their gratitude to Ghazaleh Koefod for her diligence and expertise in deciphering and typing many of the papers, as well as helping in numerous other ways. The blame for the errors that remain belongs to the editors.

The Proceedings presented here contain the notes of lectures delivered during the Eleventh Winter School of Theoretical Physics, held at Karpacz, Poland, February 19 - March 4, 1974. The School was primarily devoted to new concepts in the theory of magnetism in metals, alloys, and metallic compounds, but, as can be seen from the table of contents of the book, other topics of the theory of magnetism were also discussed in the course of the lec tures. The organizers agreed to such a broadening of the scope in order to satisfy particular requests from the Polish participants for whose benefit the School was organized. These "local" interests are clearly reflected in the Proceedings and are responsible for a certain inhomogeneity of the topics selected for presentation. Nevertheless, we have a strong hope that these materials will be interesting to many physicists, not only in Poland, for the subjects discussed here are important not only on the local level, as the lectures contain quite fresh, unpublished results or excellent up to-date reviews. The first part of the volume contains lectures directly cor responding to the title of the School, i.e., selected topics of the theory of metallic magnetism, with slight bias toward rare earth and actinide metals and their compounds. In the second half we have collected the topics more loosely connected with the main stream, such as statistical and thermodynamic aspects of various models, spin-phonon interaction, and others."

The book is designed for end users in the field of digital imaging, who wish to update their skills and understanding with the latest techniques in image analysis. The book emphasizes the conceptual framework of image analysis and the effective use of image processing tools. It uses applications in a variety of fields to demonstrate and consolidate both specific and general concepts, and to build intuition, insight and understanding. Although the chapters are essentially self-contained they reference other chapters to form an integrated whole. Each chapter employs a pedagogical approach to ensure conceptual learning before introducing specific techniques and "tricks of the trade". The book concentrates on a number of current research applications, and will present a detailed approach to each while emphasizing the applicability of techniques to other problems. The field of topics is wide, ranging from compressive (non-uniform) sampling in MRI, through automated retinal vessel analysis to 3-D ultrasound imaging and more. The book is amply illustrated with figures and applicable medical images. The reader will learn the techniques which experts in the field are currently employing and testing to solve particular research problems, and how they may be applied to other problems.

A key experiment in biomedical research is monitoring the expression of different proteins in order to detect changes that occur in biological systems under different experimental conditions. The method that is most widely used is the Western blot analysis. While Western blot is a workhorse in laboratories studying protein expression and has several advantages, it also has a number of significant limitations. In particular, the method is semi-quantitative with limited dynamic range. Western blot focuses on a single protein per sample with only a small number of representative samples analyzed in an experiment. New quantitative tools have been needed for some time to at least supplement, & possibly replace, the Western blot. Mass spectrometric methods have begun to compete with Western blot for routine quantitative analyses of proteins. One of these methods is based on the tandem mass spectrometry technique of selected reaction monitoring (SRM), which is also called multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Selected reaction monitoring is actually an older tandem mass spectrometry technique, first described in the late 70s, that is widely utilized in the quantitative analysis of small molecules like drugs & metabolites. The use of selected reaction monitoring for the quantitative analysis of proteins has a number of advantages. Most importantly, it is fundamentally quantitative with a wide dynamic range. The output of the analysis is a numerical result that can range over several orders of magnitude. Other advantages include sufficient specificity & sensitivity to detect low abundance proteins in complex mixtures. Finally, selected reaction monitoring can be multiplexed to allow the quantitative analysis of relatively large numbers of proteins in a single sample in a single experiment. This Brief will explain both the theoretical & experimental details of the selected reaction monitoring experiment as it is applied to proteins.

X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (XAFS) is a powerful and versatile technique for studying structures of materials in chemistry, physics, biology and other fields. This textbook is a comprehensive, practical guide to carrying out and interpreting XAFS experiments. Assuming only undergraduate-level physics and mathematics, the textbook is ideally suited for graduate students in physics and chemistry starting XAFS-based research. It contains concise executable example programs in Mathematica 7. Supplementary material available at www.cambridge.org/9780521767750 includes Mathematica code from the book, related Mathematica programs, and worked data analysis examples. The textbook addresses experiment, theory, and data analysis, but is not tied to specific data analysis programs or philosophies. This makes it accessible to a broad audience in the sciences, and a useful guide for researchers entering the subject.

This monograph of Electro-Optical E?ects to Visualize Field- and Current- Distributions in Semiconductors consists of ?ve parts, four of which are based ontheresearchofcadmiumsul?de, wherealargenumberofcontributionswere made between 1958 and the late 1960s to directly observe ?eld and current distributionsandinterprettheirresults.Thevisualizationof?elddistributions was accomplished by using the Franz Keldysh e?ect, and the visualization of currentinhomogeneitiesusestheshiftoftheopticalabsorptionedgebyJoule's heating. The ?fth part deals with a review of the explosively developing ?eld of N- and S-shaped current voltage characteristics causing inhomogeneities and instabilities in ?eld and current distributions. This part of the book was composed by Eckehard Sch] oll of the Technical University in Berlin. A major emphasis is given to the ?rst part of the book in which s- tionary high-?eld domains are described. These domains can be used as an essential tool to determine unambiguously certain semiconductor properties, such as the electron density and its mobility as the function of the actual electric ?eld. It is also helpful to determine changes of the work function and electron a?nities between di?erent materials, such as for electrodes and h- erojunctions. Finally, it gives direct information about certain doping and their spacial pro?le."

This book has grown out of our shared experience in the development of the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL), based on the electron-positron storage ring SPEAR at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) starting in Summer, 1973. The immense potential of the photon beam from SPEAR became obvious as soon as experiments using the beam started to run in May, 1974. The rapid growth of interest in using the beam since that time and the growth of other facilities using high-energy storage rings (see Chapters 1 and 3) demonstrates how the users of this source of radiation are finding applications in an increasingly wide variety of fields of science and technology. In assembling the list of authors for this book, we have tried to cover as many of the applications of synchrotron radiation, both realized already or in the process of realization, as we can. Inevitably, there are omissions both through lack of space and because many projects are at an early stage. We thank the authors for their efforts and cooperation in producing what we believe is the most comprehensive treatment of synchrotron radiation research to date.

The human ability to recognize objects on various backgrounds is amazing. Many times, industrial image processing tried to imitate this ability by its own techniques. This book discusses the recognition of defects on free-form edges and - homogeneous surfaces. My many years of experience has shown that such a task can be solved e?ciently only under particular conditions. Inevitably, the following questions must be answered: How did the defect come about? How and why is a person able to recognize a speci?c defect? In short, one needs an analysis of the process of defect creation as well as an analysis of its detection. As soon as the principle of these processes is understood, the processes can be described mathematically on the basis of an appropriate physical model and can then be captured in an algorithm for defect detection. This approach can be described as "image processing from a physicist's perspective". I have successfully used this approach in the development of several industrial image processingsystemsandimprovedupontheminthecourseoftime.Iwouldlike to present the achieved results in a hands-on book on the basis of edge-based algorithms for defect detection on edges and surfaces. I would like to thank all who have supported me in writing this book.

The present volume of this series, following the tradition of the previous volumes, covers three major lines of research on crystallization: growth from vapor and epitaxy, growth from solution, and growth from melt. As in the previous volumes, preference is given to papers that provide original results and reviews of results obtained by the authors and those from published sources, although some of the papers are either purely original or purely of review character. The first section deals with crystal growth from vapor and epitaxy and contains three papers. One of them, on artificial epitaxy, discusses and reviews published results from the last three years in this rapidly developing area. The results are used in outlining mechanisms for oriented film growth on amorphous substrates. Another paper in this section deals with classical epitaxy, namely oriented growth on single-crystal substrates, where some important conclusions are drawn from the growth of gallium nitride films on sapphire, which concern the orientation relationships in that pair of substances. The last paper in the section deals with film growth under ion bombardment (the corresponding techniques in film crystallization have already advanced from theory to practical applications).

This book focuses on the metallic Nano- and Micro-materials (NMMs) fabricated by physical techniques such as atomic diffusion. A new technology for fabricating NMMs by atomic diffusion is presented. Two kinds of atomic diffusion are treated; one is a phenomenon caused by electron flow in high density and called electromigration and the other is stress migration which depends on a gradient of hydrostatic stress in a material.

In three parts, the book describes the theory of atomic diffusion, the evaluation of physical properties and the treatment and applications of metallic NNMS. The new methods such as atomic diffusion are expected are expected to be crucial for the fabrication of NNMs in the future and to partially replace methods based on chemical reactions.

Primary goal of this book is to provide a cohesive description of the vast field of semiconductor quantum devices, with special emphasis on basic quantum-mechanical phenomena governing the electro-optical response of new-generation nanomaterials. The book will cover within a common language different types of optoelectronic nanodevices, including quantum-cascade laser sources and detectors, few-electron/exciton quantum devices, and semiconductor-based quantum logic gates. The distinguishing feature of the present volume is a unified microscopic treatment of quantum-transport and coherent-optics phenomena on ultrasmall space- and time-scales, as well as of their semiclassical counterparts.