|
Books > Science & Mathematics > Chemistry > Organic chemistry > Polymer chemistry
For several decades, polymer science has sought to rationalize the
mechanical and thermodynamic properties of polymer networks largely
within the framework of statistical thermodynamics. Much of this
effort has been directed toward the rubbery rather than the glassy
state. It is generally assumed that networks possess an av erage
composition to which average properties may be assigned; from such
a continuum view, a powerful analysis of such properties as
modulus, swelling, birefringence and thermoelasticity has emerged.
In the years following the rise of polymer characterization (the
late 40's and early 50's), many scientists began to study ap parent
relations between the properties of linear polymer molecules and
the networks obtainable therefrom. This search was also stimu lated
by the wide range of applications of polymer networks in com
mercial elastomers, thermosets and coatings. Frequently, these data
were confidently matched with curves obtained from statisti cally
describable models of networks of ghost chains, uniformly
distributed in space. More recently, it has become apparent that
polymer chains in networks are not as ideal as assumed in the
formulation of statis tical models, and there has been a shift in
emphasis towards the less than ideal, perturbed and possibly
inhomogeneous networks which are more frequently encountered in
practice. The continuum approach, however, had to be developed
before inhomogeneous systems could be described; the present
volume, therefore, contains both views."
These volumes, 3 and 4, of Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics con
stitute the proceedings of an international symposium on the frac
ture mechanics of ceramics held at the Pennsylvania State Univer
sity, University Park, PA on July 27, 28, and 29, 1977. Volumes 1
and 2 were published previously as the proceedings of a sympo sium
of the same name held July 11, 12, and 13, 1973, also at Penn
State. All four volumes published to date concentrate on the
fracture aspects of the mechanical behavior of brittle ceramics in
terms of the characteristics of cracks. The program chairmen
gratefully acknowledge the financial as sistance for the symposium
provided by the Office of Naval Re search, the Energy Research and
Development Administration, and the Army Research Office. Without
their support the quality and mag nitude of this conference simply
would not have been possible. Numerous individuals contributed to
the success of the con ference, but unfortunately they cannot all
be listed here. However the program chairmen would especially like
to recognize the contri butions of Penn State Conference
Coordinator, Mr. Ronald Avillion, whose expertise in planning and
organization was indispensable; Dr. Fred R. Matson for his
interesting after dinner speech; and Drs. A. M. Diness, J. C. Hurt,
and D. W. Readey for their en couragement and valuable suggestions
regarding the program. Finally, we wish to also thank our joint
secretaries for the patience and help in bringing these proceedings
to press."
Advances in Polymer Science enjoys a longstanding tradition and
good reputation in its community. Each volume is dedicated to a
current topic, and each review critically surveys one aspect of
that topic, to place it within the context of the volume. The
volumes typically summarize the significant developments of the
last 5 to 10 years and discuss them critically, presenting selected
examples, explaining and illustrating the important principles, and
bringing together many important references of primary literature.
On that basis, future research directions in the area can be
discussed. Advances in Polymer Science volumes thus are important
references for every polymer scientist, as well as for other
scientists interested in polymer science - as an introduction to a
neighboring field, or as a compilation of detailed information for
the specialist.
Advances in Polymer Science enjoys a longstanding tradition and
good reputation in its community. Each volume is dedicated to a
current topic, and each review critically surveys one aspect of
that topic, to place it within the context of the volume. The
volumes typically summarize the significant developments of the
last 5 to 10 years and discuss them critically, presenting selected
examples, explaining and illustrating the important principles, and
bringing together many important references of primary literature.
On that basis, future research directions in the area can be
discussed. Advances in Polymer Science volumes thus are important
references for every polymer scientist, as well as for other
scientists interested in polymer science - as an introduction to a
neighboring field, or as a compilation of detailed information for
the specialist.
Volume A of Handbook of Polymer Nanocomposites deals with
Layered Silicates. In some 20 chapters the preparation,
architecture, characterisation, properties and application of
polymer nanocomposites are discussed by experts in their respective
fields
Advances in Polymer Science enjoys a longstanding tradition and
good reputation in its community. Each volume is dedicated to a
current topic, and each review critically surveys one aspect of
that topic, to place it within the context of the volume. The
volumes typically summarize the significant developments of the
last 5 to 10 years and discuss them critically, presenting selected
examples, explaining and illustrating the important principles, and
bringing together many important references of primary literature.
On that basis, future research directions in the area can be
discussed. Advances in Polymer Science volumes thus are important
references for every polymer scientist, as well as for other
scientists interested in polymer science - as an introduction to a
neighboring field, or as a compilation of detailed information for
the specialist.
These volumes, 3 and 4, of Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics con
stitute the proceedings of an international symposium on the frac
ture mechanics of ceramics held at the Pennsylvania State Univer
sity, University Park, PA on July 27, 28, and 29, 1977. Volumes 1
and 2 were published previously as the proceedings of a sympo sium
of the same name held July 11, 12, and 13, 1973, also at Penn
State. All four volumes published to date concentrate on the
fracture aspects of the mechanical behavior of brittle'ceramics in
terms of the characteristics of cracks. The program chairmen
gratefully acknowledge the financial as sistance for the symposium
provided by the Office of Naval Re search, the Energy Research and
Development Administration, and the Army Research Office. Without
their support the quality and mag nitude of this conference simply
would not have been possible. Numerous individuals contributedto
the success of the con ference, but unfortunately they cannot all
be listed here. However the program chairmen would especially like
to recognize the contri butions of Penn State Conference
Coordinator, Mr. Ronald Avillion, whose expertise in planning and
organization was indispensable; Dr. Fred R. Matson for his
interesting after dinner speech; and Drs. A. M. Diness, J. C. Hurt,
and D. W. Readey for their en couragement and valuable suggestions
regarding the program. Finally, we wish to also thank our joint
secretaries for the patience and help in bringing these proceedings
to press."
The fluorine atom, by virtue of its electronegativity, size, and
bond strength with carbon, can be used to create compounds with
remarkable properties. Small molecules containing fluorine have
many positive impacts on everyday life of which blood substitutes,
pharmaceuticals, and surface modifiers are only a few examples.
Fluoropolymers, too, while traditionally associated with extreme
hi- performance applications have found their way into our homes,
our clothing, and even our language. A recent American president
was often likened to the tribology of PTFE. Since the serendipitous
discovery of Teflon at the Dupont Jackson Laboratory in 1938,
fluoropolymers have grown steadily in technological and marketplace
importance. New synthetic fluorine chemistry, new processes, and
new apprec- tion of the mechanisms by which fluorine imparts
exceptional properties all contribute to accelerating growth in
fluoropolymers. There are many stories of harrowing close calls in
the fluorine chemistry lab, especially from the early years, and
synthetic challenges at times remain daunting. But, fortunately,
modern techniques and facilities have enabled significant strides
toward taming both the hazards and synthetic uncertainties. In
contrast to past environmental problems associated with
fluorocarbon refrigerants, the exceptional properties of fluorine
in polymers have great environmental value. Some fluoropolymers are
enabling green technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells for
automobiles and oxygen-selective membranes for cleaner diesel
combustion.
Lead-based paint has become a national issue and will continue to
be a hi- priority focus ofnational, state, and local agencies until
there is no lead-based paint in the United States. Lead-based paint
has become a tremendous health hazard for people and animals.
Lead-based paint has been in widespread use throughout Europe and
the United States. Lead has been known to be a health hazard since
the time ofPliny the Elder (A. D. 23-79), but it was deemed that
the advantages of lead in paint outweighed the health hazards.
There has been a change in outlook, and in 1973 the U. S. Congress
banned all lead paint from residential structures. A voluminous
number of law suits have been initiated since, and continue to be
litigated with the purpose of determining the parties responsible
for the lead poisoning of children and others and to exact the
indemnities. Lead-based paint is still authorized for use on
bridges and nonresidential structures, and thousands of city,
state, military, and federal government housing projects still
contain lead-based paint. This paint must be removed if these
dwellings are to be safe living quarters, especially for children.
Aba- ment techniques continue to be evaluated; some have been used
successfully. Lead-based paint abatement will continue into the
next century, and it is hoped that this comprehensive volume will
serve as a guide for those seriously interested in this important
subject.
To the biochemist, water is, of course, the only solvent worthy of
consideration, because natural macromolecules exhibit their
remarkable conformational properties only in aqueous media.
Probably because of these remarkable properties, biochemists do not
tend to regard proteins, nucleotides and polysaccharides as
polymers in the way that real polymer scientists regard methyl
methacrylate and polyethylene. The laws of polymer statistics
hardly apply to native biopolymers. Between these two powerful
camps, lies the No-man's land of water soluble synthetic polymers:
here, we must also include natural polymers which have been
chemically modified. The scientific literature of these compounds
is characterized by a large number of patents, which is usually a
sign of little basic understanding, of 'know-how' rather than of
'know-why'. Many of the physical properties of such aqueous
solutions are intriguing: the polymer may be completely miscible
with water, and yet water is a 'poor' solvent, in terms of polymer
parlance. ~kiny of the polymers form thermorever sible gels on
heating or cooling. The phenomena of exothermic mixing and
salting-in are common features of such systems: neither can be
fully explained by the available theories. Finally, the eccentric
behaviour of polyelectrolytes is well documented. Despite the lack
of a sound physico-chemical foundation there is a general awareness
of the importance of water soluble vinyl, acrylic, polyether,
starch and cellulose derivatives, as witnessed again by ~he vast
patent literature.
In this reference, the author thoroughly reviews the current state
of condensed phosphate chemistry. A unique feature of this volume
is an examination of the recent developments in X-ray structural
techniques, reporting on fundamental results obtained through their
use. Enhanced by comprehensive tables reporting crystal data,
chapters identify and characterize more than 2,000 compounds.
Additional features include a concise survey of the historical
development of condensed phosphate chemistry; the presently
accepted classification system; a review of each family of
condensed phosphates and much more.
Water-soluble polymers have been attracting increasing atten tion
because of their utility in industrial applications of great
current concern. Perhaps preeminent among these is their ability to
flocculate suspended solids, e.g., wastes in municipal sew
age-treatment plants or pulp in papermaking. other important appli
cations are to aid in so-called secondary recovery of petroleum, to
reduce turbulent friction of water, and as components of
water-based finishes developed in response to environmental con
straints. Some water-soluble polymers have shown interesting bio
logic activity, which is being investigated further. This book is
based on papers presented at a symposium held by the American
Chemical Society, Division of Organic Coatings and Plastics
Chemistry, in New York City on 30-31 August 1972. The large
attendance and the favorable response of the audience con firmed
not only our view of the importance of the field but also the need
to bring these topics together. The chapters in this book are
generally enlarged and more detailed, with more complete
bibliographies, than the papers presented at the Symposium. They
include not only the important applications described above, but
also descriptions of new syntheses and characterization methods."
Until comparatively recently, trace analysis techniques were in
general directed toward the determination of impurities in bulk
materials. Methods were developed for very high relative
sensitivity, and the values determined were average values.
Sampling procedures were devised which eliminated the so-called
sampling error. However, in the last decade or so, a number of
developments have shown that, for many purposes, the distribution
of defects within a material can confer important new properties on
the material. Perhaps the most striking example of this is given by
semiconductors; a whole new industry has emerged in barely twenty
years based entirely on the controlled distribu tion of defects
within what a few years before would have been regarded as a pure,
homogeneous crystal. Other examples exist in biochemistry,
metallurgy, polyiners and, of course, catalysis. In addition to
this of the importance of distribution, there has also been a
recognition growing awareness that physical defects are as
important as chemical defects. (We are, of course, using the word
defect to imply some dis continuity in the material, and not in any
derogatory sense. ) This broadening of the field of interest led
the Materials Advisory Board( I} to recommend a new definition for
the discipline, "Materials Character ization," to encompass this
wider concept of the determination of the structure and composition
of materials. In characterizing a material, perhaps the most
important special area of interest is the surface.
Morphology-Property Relationship in Rubber-Based Nanocomposites:
Some Recent Developments, by A. K. Bhowmick, M. Bhattacharya, S.
Mitra, K. Dinesh Kumar, P. K. Maji, A. Choudhury, J. J. George and
G. C. Basak; * Rubber-Clay Nanocomposites: Some Recent Results, by
Amit Das, De-Yi Wang, Klaus Werner Stoeckelhuber, Rene Jurk,
Juliane Fritzsche, Manfred Kluppel and Gert Heinrich; * Surface
Modification of Fillers and Curatives by Plasma Polymerization for
Enhanced Performance of Single Rubbers and Dissimilar Rubber/Rubber
Blends, by J. W. M. Noordermeer, R. N. Datta, W. K. Dierkes, R.
Guo, T. Mathew, A. G. Talma, M. Tiwari and W. van Ooij; * Recent
Developments on Thermoplastic Elastomers by Dynamic Vulcanization,
by R. Rajesh Babu and Kinsuk Naskar; * PTFE-Based Rubber Composites
for Tribological Applications, by M. S. Khan and G. Heinrich
Shunsuke Hirotsu "Coexistence of Phases and the Nature of
First-Order Transition in Poly-N-isopropylacrylamide Gels,"
Masayuki Tokita "Friction between Polymer Networks of Gels and
Solvent," Masahiro Irie "Stimuli-Responsive Poly(N-isopropyl-
acrylamide), Photo- and Chemicals-Induced Phases Transitions Edward
Cussler, Karen Wang, John Burban"Hydrogels as Separation Agents,"
Stevin Gehrke "Synthesis, Equilibrium Swelling, Kinetics
Permeability and Applications of Environmentally Responsive Gels,"
Pedro Verdugo "Polymer Gel Phase Transition in Condensation-
Decondensation of Secretory Products," Etsuo Kokufuta "Novel
Applications for Stimulus-Sensitive Polymer Gels in the Preparation
of Functional Immobilized Biocatalysts," Teruo Okano "Molecular
Design of Temperature-Responsive Polymers as Intelligent
Materials," Atsushi Suzuki "Phase Transition in Gels of
Sub-Millimeter Size Induced by Interaction with Stimuli," Makoto
Suzuki, O. Hirasa "An Approach to Artificial Muscle by Polymer Gels
due to Micro-Phase Separation."
F.J. Balta-Calleja, A. Gonzalez Arche, T.A. Ezquerra, C. Santa
Cruz, F. Batallan, B. Frick, G.A. Arche, E. Lopez Cabarcos,
Structure and Properties of Ferroelectric Copolymers of Poly
(vinylidene) Fluoride H.G. Kilian, T. Pieper Packing of Chain
Segments: A Method for Describing X-Ray Patterns of Crystalline,
Liquid Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Polymers K. Miyasaka
PVA-Iodine Complexes: Formation, Structure and Properties
In 1975, a symposium was held in Midland, Michigan, co-sponsored by
the Dow Chemical Company and the then Midland Macromolecular
Institute in honor of Raymond F. Boyer on the occasion of his 65th
birthday and retirement from Dow. The topic of that first Boyer
symposium dealt with an area of interest to Boyer, namely, polymer
transitions and relaxations. One decade later, after ten years of
additional fruitful scientific endeavor at MMI, Ray Boyer was again
honored with a symposium, this time celebrating his 75th birthday
and 10th anniversary at the Michigan Molecular Institute. The topic
of the second Boyer symposium in 1985 was somewhat more focused,
this time concentrating on the subject of order (or structure) in
the amorphous state of polymers and the attendant polymer
transitions that are observed. This volume contains the full
manuscripts of the contributors to the 17th MMI International
Symposium, held in Midland, Michigan on August 18-21, 1985. Eleven
one-hour plenary lectures and ten 20-minute contributed papers were
presented during the Symposium. An open forum panel discussion was
also scheduled; the edited transcript of that session is included
at the end of this volume. One of our tasks in organizing this
Symposium was to attempt to gather together a number of speakers
who would be able to define what, if any, physical structure might
be present in anwrplwus polymers and what the nature of this order
might be.
One of the most significant challenges facing mankind in the
twenty-first century is the development of a sustainable global
economy. Within the scientific community, this calls for the
development of processes and technologies that will allow the
sustainable production of materials from renewable natural
resources. Plant material, in particular lignin, is one such
resource. During the annual production of about 100 million metric
tons of chemical wood pulps worldwide, approximately 45 and 2
million metric tons/year of kraft lignin and lignosulfonates,
respectively, are also generated. Although lignosulfonates have
found many applications outside the pulp and paper industry, the
majority of kraft lignin is being used internally as a low-grade
fuel for the kraft pulping operation. A surplus of kraft lignin
will become available as kraft mills increase their pulp production
without expanding the capacity of their recovery boilers that
utilize lignin as a fuel. There is a tremendous opportunity and an
enormous economic incentive to find better uses of kraft lignin,
lignosulfonates and other industriallignins. The pulp and paper
industry not only produces an enormous amount of lignins as by
products of chemical wood pulps, but it also utilizes about 10
million metric tons of lignin per year as a component of mechanical
wood pulps and papers. Mechanical wood pulps, produced in a yield
of 90-98% with the retention of lignin, are mainly used to make
low-quality, non-permanent papers such as newsprint and telephone
directories because of the light-induced photooxidation of lignin
and the yellowing of the papers.
Advances in Polymer Science enjoys a longstanding tradition and
good reputation in its community. Each volume is dedicated to a
current topic, and each review critically surveys one aspect of
that topic, to place it within the context of the volume. The
volumes typically summarize the significant developments of the
last 5 to 10 years and discuss them critically, presenting selected
examples, explaining and illustrating the important principles, and
bringing together many important references of primary literature.
On that basis, future research directions in the area can be
discussed. Advances in Polymer Science volumes thus are important
references for every polymer scientist, as well as for other
scientists interested in polymer science - as an introduction to a
neighboring field, or as a compilation of detailed information for
the specialist.
Advances in Polymer Science enjoys a longstanding tradition and
good reputation in its community. Each volume is dedicated to a
current topic, and each review critically surveys one aspect of
that topic, to place it within the context of the volume. The
volumes typically summarize the significant developments of the
last 5 to 10 years and discuss them critically, presenting selected
examples, explaining and illustrating the important principles, and
bringing together many important references of primary literature.
On that basis, future research directions in the area can be
discussed. Advances in Polymer Science volumes thus are important
references for every polymer scientist, as well as for other
scientists interested in polymer science - as an introduction to a
neighboring field, or as a compilation of detailed information for
the specialist.
These volumes constitute the Proceedings of a Symposium ort the
Fracture Mechanics of Cerarnics, held at the Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, Pennsylvania, July 11, 12, and 13,
1973. The theme of the symposium focussed on the mechanical
behavior of brittle cerarnics in terms of the characteristics of
cracks. The 52 contributed papers by 87 authors, present an
overview of the cur rent understanding of the theory and
application of fracture mechan ics to brittle cerarnics. The
prograrn chairmen gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance
for the Symposium provided by the Office of Naval Re search, the
College of Earth and Mineral Sciences of the Pennsyl vania State
University, the Materials Research Center of Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvana and Westinghouse Research Laboratories,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Special appreciation is extended to the
expert organization provided by the J. Orvis Keller Conference
Center of the Pennsyl vania State Conference Center of the
Pennsylvania State University. In particular, Mrs. Patricia Ewing
should be acknowledged for the excellent prograrn organization and
planning. Dean Harold J. O'Brien, who was featured as the
after-dinner speaker and who presented a most stimulating talk on
the cornrnunication between people, also contrib uted to the
success of the meeting. Finally, we also wish to thank our joint
secretaries for the patience and help in bringing these Proceedings
to press. University Park R. C. Bradt Bethlehem D. P. H. Hasseiman
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania F. F. Lange July, 1973 v CONTENTS OF
VOLUME 2 Contents of Volume 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
|
|