Diffusion Barrier Stack - 5 nm -3 nm -2 nm :. . . -. . . . : . . O. 21-lm Figure 2: Schematic representing a cross-sectional view of the topography that is encountered in the processing of integrated circuits. (Not to scale) these sub-micron sized features is depicted in Fig. 2. The role of the diffusion barrier is to prevent the diffusion of metallic ions into the interlayer dielectric (lLD). Depending on the technology, in particular the choice of the ILD and the metal interconnect, the diffusion barrier may be Ti, Ta, TiN, TaN, or a multi-layered structure of these materials. The adhesion of the barrier to the dielectric, the conformality of the barrier to the feature, the physical structure of the film, and the chemical composition of the film are key issues that are determined in part by the nature of the deposition process. Likewise, after the growth of the barrier, a conducting layer (the seed layer) is needed for subsequent filling of the trench by electrochemical deposition. Again, the growth process must be able to deposit a film that is continuous along the topography of the sub-micron sized features. Other factors of concern are the purity and the texture of the seed layer, as both of these factors influence the final resistivity of the metallic interconnect. Sputter-deposited coatings are also commonly employed for their electro-optical properties. For example, an electrochromic glazing is used to control the flux of light that is transmitted through a glazed material.

This book provides an up-to-date introduction to the field of functional thin films and materials, encompassing newly developed technologies and fundamental new concepts. The focus is on the critical areas of novel thin films such as sol gel synthesis of membrane, ferroelectric thin films and devices, functional nanostructured thin films, micromechanical analysis of fiber-reinforced composites, and novel applications. An important aspect of the book lies in its wide coverage of practical applications. It introduces not only the cutting-edge technologies in modern industry, but also unique applications in many rapidly advancing fields. This book is written for a wide readership including university students and researchers from diverse backgrounds such as physics, materials science, engineering and chemistry. Both undergraduate and graduate students will find it a valuable reference book on key topics related to solid state and materials science.

This seriesofbooks, which is publishedattherateofaboutoneper year, addresses fundamental problems in materialsscience.Thecontents coverabroadrangeoftopicsfromsmallclustersofatomstoengineering materials and involve chemistry, physics, materials science, and engineering,withlengthscalesrangingfromAngstromsuptomillimeters. Theemphasis is on basic scienceratherthan on applications. Each book focuses on a single areaofcurrent interest and brings together leading experts to give an up-to-date discussion oftheir work and the workof others. Each articlecontainsenough references thattheinterestedreader can access the relevant literature. Thanks are given to the Center for Fundamental Materials Research at Michigan State University for supportingthisseries. M.F.Thorpe,SeriesEditor E-mail:[email protected] EastLansing,Michigan,November2002 v PREFACE ThisvolumerecordsinvitedlecturesgivenattheNewThermoelectric(TE)Materials Workshopheld inTraverseCity,MichiganfromAugust17-21,2002.Thethemeofthe workshop was Chemistry, PhysicsandMaterials ScienceofThermoelectric Materials: Beyond Bismuth Telluride. The objective of this symposium was threefold. First, to examine and assess the ability of solid state chemistry to produce new generation materials for TE applications. Second, to rationalize and predict the charge and heat transportpropertiesofpotentialcandidatesandhypotheticalsystemsthroughsolidstate theoryandexperiment.Third,toidentifyandprioritizeresearchneededtoreachvarious levelsofrequirementsintermsofZTandtemperature.Theseobjectiveswereaddressed by a series of invited talks and discussions by leading experts from academia, governmentlaboratories,andindustry. Thereweretwenty-twoinvitedandeightposterpresentations inthe workshop.Out ofthese,sixteeninvitedpresentationsarerepresentedinthisvolume.Theycoverawide range of subjects, starting from synthesis (based on different strategies) and characterizationofnovel materials to acareful studyoftheir transport properties and electronicstructure.Topicsaddressingtheissueofmakingnew materialsare: synthetic search for new materials (di Salvo et aI.) and synthetic strategies based on phase homologies (Kanatzidis). The different classes of materials covered are: bismuth nanowires (Dresselhausetal.), unconventional high-temperaturethermoelectrics, boron carbides (Aselage et aI.) , layered cobalt oxides (Fujii et aI.), early transition metal antimonides(KleinkeetaI.),skutterudites(Uher),andclathratethermoelectrics(Nolas).

Defect engineering has come of age. That theme is well documented by both the academic and industrial research communities in this book from MRS. Going beyond defect control, the book explores the engineering of desired properties in semiconductor materials and devices through the deliberate introduction and manipulation of defects and impurities. Papers are grouped around ten distinct topics covering materials, processing and devices. Topics include: grown-in defects in bulk crystals; grown-in defects in thin films; gettering and related phenomena; hydrogen interaction with semiconductors; defect issues in widegap semiconductors; defect characterization; ion implantation and process-induced defects; defects in devices; interfaces, quantum wells and superlattices; and defect properties, reaction, activation and passivation.

The purpose of this book is to review the current state of this quickly developing field. Up until now, there has been no concise review available of the rather diverse aspects of this field. This book gives a basic introduction to the concepts behind Bloch oscillations. It describes how the physics of high field transport has been investigated through a broad range of experimental techniques such as interband and intraband optical spectroscopy and transport experiments. Possible applications and further trends are also discussed.

This comprehensive book reports on recent investigations of lattice imperfections in semiconductors by means of positron annihilation. It reviews positron techniques, and describes the application of these techniques to various kinds of defects, such as vacancies, impurity vacancy complexes and dislocations.

Nanometer scale physics is progressing rapidly: the top-down approach of semiconductor technology will soon encounter the scale of the bottom-up approaches of supramolecular chemistry and spatially localized excitations in ionic crystals. Advances in this area have already led to applications in optoelectronics. More may be expected.

This book deals with the role of structure confinement in the spectroscopic characteristics of physical systems. It examines the fabrication, measurement and understanding of the relevant structures. It reports progress in the theory and in experimental techniques, starting with the consideration of fundamental principles and leading to the frontiers of research. The subjects dealt with include such spatially resolved structures as quantum wells, quantum wires, quantum dots, and luminescence, in both theoretical and practical terms.

Nanometer scale physics is progressing rapidly: the top-down approach of semiconductor technology will soon encounter the scale of the bottom-up approaches of supramolecular chemistry and spatially localized excitations in ionic crystals. Advances in this area have already led to applications in optoelectronics. More may be expected.

This book deals with the role of structure confinement in the spectroscopic characteristics of physical systems. It examines the fabrication, measurement and understanding of the relevant structures. It reports progress in the theory and in experimental techniques, starting with the consideration of fundamental principles and leading to the frontiers of research. The subjects dealt with include such spatially resolved structures as quantum wells, quantum wires, quantum dots, and luminescence, in both theoretical and practical terms.

The book gives a detailed presentation of high-frequency bipolar transistors in silicon or silicon-germanium technology with particular emphasis placed on today's advanced compact models and their physical foundations. The first part introduces the fundamentals of bipolar transistors on a graduate-student level. The second part considers the physics and modeling of bipolar transistors in detail. The final part describes basic circuit configurations, aspects of process integration and applications. This modern book-length treatment will interest those working in the field, including circuit designers, industrial process developers, and PhD students. 

In this book, the fundamentals of magnetism are treated, starting at an introductory level. The origin of magnetic moments, the response to an applied magnetic field, and the various interactions giving rise to different types of magnetic ordering in solids are presented and many examples are given. Crystalline-electric-field effects are treated at a level that is sufficient to provide the basic knowledge necessary in understanding the properties of materials in which these effects play a role. Itinerant-electron magnetism is presented on a similar basis. Particular attention has been given to magnetocrystalline magnetic anisotropy and the magnetocaloric effect. Also, the usual techniques for magnetic measurements are presented. About half of the book is devoted to magnetic materials and the properties that make them suitable for numerous applications. The state of the art is presented of permanent magnets, high-density recording materials, soft-magnetic materials, Invar alloys and magnetostrictive materials. Many references are given.

This book introduces the principles and techniques of modern electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy that are essential to determine microscopic defect structures. Many different magnetic resonance methods are required for investigating the microscopic and electronic properties of solids and uncovering correlations between those properties. In addition to EPR, such methods include electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR), electronically and optically detected EPR (also known as ODENDOR), and electronically and optically detected ENDOR. This book comprehensively discusses experimental, technological, and theoretical aspects of these techniques from a practical point of view, with examples of semiconductors and insulators. While the non-specialist learns about the potential of the different methods, the researcher finds help in the application of commercial apparatus and guidance from ab initio theory for deriving structure models from data.

An outstanding feature of this book is a collection of state-of-the-art reviews written by leading researchers in the nanomechanics of carbon nanotubes, nanocrystalline materials, biomechanics and polymer nanocomposites. The structure and properties of carbon nanotubes, polycrystalline metals, and coatings are discussed in great details. The book is an exceptional resource on multi-scale modelling of metals, nanocomposites, MEMS materials and biomedical applications. An extensive bibliography concerning all these topics is included. Highlights on bio-materials, MEMS, and the latest multi-scale methods (e.g., molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo) are presented. Numerous illustrations of inter-atomic potentials, nanotube deformation and fracture, grain rotation and growth in solids, ceramic coating structures, blood flows and cell adhesion are discussed.
This book provides a comprehensive review of latest developments in the analysis of mechanical phenomena in nanotechnology and bio-nanotechnology.

This is the first volume of a comprehensive two-volume treatise on superconductivity that represents the first such publication since the earlier work by R. Parks. It systematically reviews the basic physics and recent advances in the field. Leading researchers describe the state of the art in conventional phonon-induced superconductivity, high-Tc superconductivity, and novel superconductivity. After an introduction and historical overview, the leaders in the special fields of research give a comprehensive survey of the basics and the state of the art in chapters covering the entire field of superconductivity, including conventional and unconventional superconductors. Important new results are reported in a manner intended to stimulate further research. Numerous illustrations, diagrams and tables make this book especially useful as a reference work for students, teachers, and researchers. The second volume treats novel superconductors.

Thisvolumereportsthemajorpartofthescientificcontributionsofthefirstinternational workshoponSuperconductingNano-ElectronicsDevices(SNED)heldinNapoli,Italy,at theendofMay2001. Theaimoftheworkshopwastofocusonrecentexperimentalandtheoreticalresultsin thefieldofsuperconductingnano-electronicsdevices. Itcombinedphysicswithpresent andfuturetechnologicalapplications:bothfundamentalandappliedaspectswerecovered. SpecialemphasiswasgiventoquantumcoherenceandcomputationusingsmallJosephson junctions,noiseinultrasensitivenanodevicesandpossibilitiesofmakinguseofsupercon- ductivityinvariouson-chipdevices. Withtheseattributesandwithrecognizedinvited speakersintheirspecialtiestheworkshopmanagedtobringtogetheracollectionof scientistsfromnearbybutdistinctresearchcommunities. Thiswaytheatmosphereofthe workshopbecameveryopenanddiscussionswerelivelybothduringandoutsidethe sessions. Thisfreshdiscussionhopefullygaveeveryparticipantalotofnewideasfor furtherworkbackintheirhomeinstitutes. OneofthecentraltopicsintheworkshopwastheuseofdifferentJosephsonjunction configurationsasimplementationsofquantumbits. Atthetimeoftheworkshopwewere justwaitingforthesecondwaveofbreakthroughsinthisfield:theresultsemergingfrom theparticipatinglaboratoriesoftheworkshopjustatthetimeofthewritingofthispreface perhapsalsoprovetheusefulnessofourworkshop. Anotherfocuswasonvarioustopicsrelatedtoultrasensativedetectors. Theybring quantumlimitationstoapplications,andmanydeviceconceptsareresultsofunderstanding fundamentalandexcitingphenomenainsuperconductivity. Noiseandon-chipcooling wereexplicitlydiscussedinthedetectorsessionsaswell. ThechoiceofthelocationrecognizestheroleandthetraditionsofNapoliespeciallyin thefieldofmacroscopicquantumcoherence,oneofthemainissuesoftheworkshop. It furtherguaranteedtheparticipantsastimulatingatmosphereatthemeeting. Inconclusion,wewishtothanktheIstitutoItalianopergliStudiFilosofici,theIstituto diCiberneticadelConsiglioNazionaledelleRicerche,theUniversityofJyviiskylii,the IstitutoNazionalediFisicaNucleare,theIstitutoNazionalediFisicadellaMateria,the DipartimentoScienzeFisiche,andtheRettoratodell'UniversitadiNapoli"FedericoII" fortheirsupport. ThanksarealsoduetoAirLiquide,CRY,Nanoway,OxfordInstruments, andRaith. ThisinitiativeisintheframeoftheinternationalactivityofMQC2Association on"MacroscopicQuantumCoherenceandComputing. "WeareindebtedtoC. Granata v vi PREFACE and V. Coratoforscientificassistance,andtoF. Caiazzo,E. DeGrazia,andA. M. Mazzarellafortheirvaluableassistanceinallthetasksconnectedtotheorganizationofthe Workshop. WearealsogratefultoL. Longobardi,A. Monaco,S. Piscitelli,andS. Rombetto forhintsandhelpduringtheWorkshop. ThanksareduetoL. DeFelice,S. Luongo,and V. Sindonifortheorganizationofthesocialevent. J. Pekola B. Ruggiero P. Silvestrini CONTENTS QuantumNondemolitionMeasurementsofaQubit . D. V. Averin BayesianQuantumMeasurementofaSingle-Cooper-PairQubit 11 A. Korotkov lIfNoiseinJosephsonQubits 15 E. Paladino, L. Faoro,G. Falci,and R. Fazio SwitchingCurrentsandQuasi-ParticlePoisoningintheSuperconducting SingleElectronTransistor 25 P. Agren,J. Walter,V. Sch611mann,andD. B. Haviland JosephsonSystemsforQuantumCoherenceExperiments 33 V. Corato,C. Granata, L. Longobardi,M. Russo,B. Ruggiero, andP. Silvestrini SolidStateAnalogueofDoubleSlitInterferometer...43 K. Yu. Arutyunov, T. T. Hongisto,andJ. P. Pekola NoiseandMicrowavePropertiesofSET-Transistors...53 M. Ejrnres,M. T. Savolainen,andJ. Mygind UseofSmallThnnelJunctionsOperatingatT=0. 3K 63 R. Leoni,M. G. Castellano,F. Chiarello,andG. Torrioli AHystericSingleCooperPairTransistorforSingleShotReadingof 73 aCharge-Qubit A. Cottet,D. Vion,P. Joyez,D. Esteve,andM. H. Devoret SingleCooperPairElectrometerBasedonaRadio-Frequency-SQUID Scheme 87 A. B. Zorin vii viii CONTENTS PossibilityofSingle-ElectronDevicesandSuperconductingCoherence 97 Yu. A. Pashkin, Y. Nakamura,T. Yamamoto,andJ. S. Tsai Frequency-LockedCurrentofCooperPairsinSuperconductingSingle ElectronTransistorwithOhmicResistor...105 S. V. Lotkhov,S. A. Bogoslovsky, A. B. Zorin,andJ. Niemeyer SetupforExperimentsontheSupercurrent-PhaseRelationinBloch Transistors-StatusandPossibleApplications 115 M. Gotz, V. V. Khanin, A. B. Zorin,E. Il'ichev,S. A. Bogoslovsky, andJ. Niemeyer Single-ElectronTransistorsintheRegimeofHighConductance...123 C. Wallisser,B;Limblach,P. yomStein,and R. Schiifer SuperconductingTransistor-EdgeSensorsforTime&EnergyResolved Single-PhotonCountersandforDarkMatterSearches 133 B. Cabrera OptimizationoftheHot-ElectronBolometerandaCascadeQuasiparticle 145 L. Kuzrnin NoiseinRefrigeratingTunnelJunctionsandinMicrobolometers...153 D. V. Anghel NonequilibriumQuasiparticlesandElectronCoolingbyNormalMetal- SuperconductorTunnelJunctions...165 D. Golubevand A. Vasenko MesoscopicJosephsonJunctionsCoupledtoWeakCoherentFields: AnExampleofReciprocalDetection 175 R. Miglioreand A. Messina DynamicsofSuperconductingInterferometersContainingPi-Junctions 183 V. K. Kornev, I. I. Soloviev, I. V. Borisenko,P. B. Mozhaev, andG. A.

The present volume contains the written versions of most of the invited talks of the Spring Meeting of the Condensed Matter Physics section of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft held from March 25 to 29, 2002 in Regensburg, Germany. Also contained are those talks presented as part of the Symposia most of which were organized by several divisions in collaboration and covered a fascinating selection of topics of current interest. Thus this volume reflects the status of condensed matter physics in Germany in the year 2002. In particular, one notes a slight change in paradigms: from quantum dots and wires to spin transport and soft matter systems in the broadest sense. This seems to reflect the present general trend in physics. Nevertheless, a large portion of the invited papers concentrate on nanostructured matter.

Epitaxial growth lies at the heart of a wide range of industrial and technological applications. Recent breakthroughs, experimental and theoretical, allow actual atom-by-atom manipulation and an understanding of such processes, opening up a totally new area of unprecedented nanostructuring.

The contributions to Atomistic Aspects of Epitaxial Growth are divided into five main sections, taking the reader from the atomistic details of surface diffusion to the macroscopic description of epitaxial systems. many of the papers contain substantial background material on theoretical and experimental methods, making the book suitable for both graduate students as a supplementary text in a course on epitaxial phenomena, and for professionals in the field.

Epitaxial growth lies at the heart of a wide range of industrial and technological applications. Recent breakthroughs, experimental and theoretical, allow actual atom-by-atom manipulation and an understanding of such processes, opening up a totally new area of unprecedented nanostructuring.

The contributions to Atomistic Aspects of Epitaxial Growth are divided into five main sections, taking the reader from the atomistic details of surface diffusion to the macroscopic description of epitaxial systems. many of the papers contain substantial background material on theoretical and experimental methods, making the book suitable for both graduate students as a supplementary text in a course on epitaxial phenomena, and for professionals in the field.

This useful reference is about CMOS circuit design for sensor and actuators to be used in wireless RF systems. It places special focus on the power and data link in a wireless system with transducers powered via the RF link, presenting novel principles and methods.

This book traces the quest to use nanostructured media for novel and improved optoelectronic devices. Starting with the invention of the heterostructure laser, the progression via thin films to quasi zero-dimensional quantum dots has led to novel device concepts and tremendous improvements in device performance. Along the way sophisticated methods of material preparation and characterization have been developed. Novel physical phenomena have emerged and are now used in devices such as lasers and optical amplifiers. Leading experts - among them Nobel laureate Zhores Alferov - write here about the fundamental concepts behind nano-optoelectronics, the material basis, physical phenomena, device physics and systems.

This book provides a survey of the state of the art of technology and future trends in the new family of Smart Power ICs and describes design and applications in a variety of fields ranging from automotive to telecommunications, reliability evaluation and qualification procedures. The book is a valuable source of information and reference for both power IC design specialists and to all those concerned with applications, the development of digital circuits and with system architecture.

The manipulation of electric charge in bulk semiconductors and their heterostructures is the basis of nearly all modern electronic and opto-electronic devices. Recent studies of spin-dependent phenomena in semiconductors open the door to technologies that harness the spin of the electron in semiconductor devices. In addition to providing spin-dependent analogies that extend existing electronic devices into the realm of semiconductor "spintronics," the spin degree of freedom also offers prospects for fundamentally new functionality in the quantum domain, ranging from storage to computation. This is likely to play a crucial role in the information technologies in the 21st century. This book, written by a team of experts, provides an overview of emerging concepts in this rapidly developing field. The topics range from spin transport and injection in semiconductors and their heterostructures to coherent processes and computation in semiconductor quantum structures and microcavities.

A review of the electrical properties, performance and physical mechanisms of the main silicon-on-insulator (SOI) materials and devices. Particular attention is paid to the reliability of SOI structures operating in harsh conditions. The first part of the book deals with material technology and describes the SIMOX and ELTRAN technologies, the smart-cut technique, SiCOI structures and MBE growth. The second part covers reliability of devices operating under extreme conditions, with an examination of low and high temperature operation of deep submicron MOSFETs and novel SOI technologies and circuits, SOI in harsh environments and the properties of the buried oxide. The third part deals with the characterization of advanced SOI materials and devices, covering laser-recrystallized SOI layers, ultrashort SOI MOSFETs and nanostructures, gated diodes and SOI devices produced by a variety of techniques. The last part reviews future prospects for SOI structures, analyzing wafer bonding techniques, applications of oxidized porous silicon, semi-insulating silicon materials, self-organization of silicon dots and wires on SOI and some new physical phenomena.

This book presents the current level of understanding of the structural, electronic and optical properties of amorphous semiconductors. As amorphous materials depart significantly from the crystalline counterparts, some of the basic problems associated with the validity of the effective mass approximation, whether K is a good quantum number, and concepts of phonons and excitons will be addressed in detail. A significant part of the book is devoted to present recent progress made in the understanding of light-induced degradations in amorphous semiconductors, which is regarded as the most limiting problem in device applications. The monograph presents a comprehensive review of both experimental and theoretical studies on amorphous semiconductors.

This book is devoted to logic synthesis and design techniques for asynchronous circuits. It uses the mathematical theory of Petri Nets and asynchronous automata to develop practical algorithms implemented in a public domain CAD tool. Asynchronous circuits have so far been designed mostly by hand, and are thus much less common than their synchronous counterparts, which have enjoyed a high level of design automation since the mid-1970s. Asynchronous circuits, on the other hand, can be very useful to tackle clock distribution, modularity, power dissipation and electro-magnetic interference in digital integrated circuits. This book provides the foundation needed for CAD-assisted design of such circuits, and can also be used as the basis for a graduate course on logic design.

The quantum Hall effects remains one of the most important subjects to have emerged in condensed matter physics over the past 20 years. The fractional quantum Hall effect, in particular, has opened up a new paradigm in the study of strongly correlated electrons, and it has been shown that new concepts, such as fractional statistics, anyon, chiral Luttinger liquid and composite particles, are realized in two-dimensional electron systems. This book explains the quantum Hall effects together with these new concepts starting from elementary quantum mechanics. Thus, graduate students can use this book to gain an overall understanding of these phenomena.