This book is a product of the understanding I developed of stress analysis applied to plastics, while at work at L. J. Broutman and Associates (UBA) and as a lecturer in the seminars on this topic co-sponsored by UBA and Society of Plastics Engineers. I believe that by its extent and level of treatment, this book would serve as an easy-to-read desktop reference for professionals, as well as a text book at the junior or senior level in undergraduate programs. The main theme of this book is what to do with computed stress. To approach the theme effectively, I have taken the "stress category ap proach" to stress analysis. Such an approach is being successfully used in the nuclear power field. In plastics, this approach helps in the prediction of long term behavior of structures. To maintain interest I have limited derivations and proofs to a minimum, and provided them, if at all, as flow charts. In this way, I believe that one can see better the connection between the variables, assumptions, and mathematics.

New developments in the application of radiation to medicine are occurring so rapidly that this is possibly the fastest growing branch of medicine today. In the past decade alone, we have seen enormous progress made in tech niques used both for the diagnosis of disease, such as computerized tomography, digital radiography, ultrasonography, computerized nuclear medicine scanning, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, and for its treatment, such as the radiotherapeutic utilization of high-LET radiations, and the widespread application of computers to perform elegant dosimetry calculations for 3-D treatment planning and imaging. This series will provide in-depth reviews of the many spectacular technical advances and sophisticated concepts, which are developing in medical radiation physics at such an alarming rate that it has become increasingly difficult to keep one's knowledge up-to-date. These comprehen sive review articles will help to bridge the communications gap between the international research community, and the medical physicists and phy sicians whose responsibility it is to put these advances into clinical use. These articles should also be of value to the increasing number of physical scientists and engineers who are interested in the application of their knowledge and talents to the field of medicine."

I will plant in the wilderness the cedar the acacia-tree and the myrtle and the oil-tree; I will set in the desert the cypress, the plane-tree and the larch together; That they may see, and know and consider and understand together, That the hand of the Lord hath done this, *** Isaiah, 41:19 and 20 (first portion) The need to improve our utilization of the Earth's natural resources is everyone's business, from every country. This book presents papers from all parts of the world on the subject of making new or improved polymers from renewable resources, be they plastics, elastomers, fibers, coatings, or adhesives. In important ways, this book constitutes part II of an edited work published by Plenum Press in 1983, "Polymer Applications of Renewable-Resource Materials. " To that extent, about half of the authors are the same. However, their papers present an update of their research three years later. The other half of the authors are entirely new. Bo~h of these books grew out of symposia sponsored by the Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering Division of the American Chemical Society. The papers for the present book are based loosely on a symposium held at the Miami Beach meeting in April, 1985. Unfortunately, interest in polymers from renewable resources fluctuates with the price and availability of petroleum oil. At the time of writing this preface, the price is low, and appears to be headed lower still.

This book presents detailed discussions of several of the large scale applications of superconductivity which will have major economic impact on technical developments in the industrial world. The world wide concern with energy problems makes this work particularly timely. Some of the large scale devices and systems such as superconducting generators, motors, power transmission, large magnets, high speed ground transportation and industrial processing clearly speak directly to improved efficiencies of generation and utilization of energy. The articles treat each subject in depth. The text is suitable for advanced undergradu ate or graduate engineering or applied science courses. The text should also be of immediate use to practicing engineers and scientists in applied superconductivity. The unique summaries of national efforts in applied superconductivity will also be valuable to industrial and government plan ners. The book is based on a NATO Advanced Study Institute entitled, "Large Scale Applications of Superconductivity and Magnetism" which was held September 5 to 14 in the Hotel des Alpes, Entreves, Valle d'Aosta, Northern Italy. This Study Institute represented a departure from other NA TO Advanced Study Institutes in that it was very strongly directed toward engineering applications rather than purely scientifically oriented interests. The planning of this Institute developed over several years and would not have been possible without continued interest by several key NATO Scientific Mfairs Division scientists. It started when one of us (S. F. ) met with Dr. H."

Injection moulding is one of the most important methods of manufacturing plastics products. Through the development of sophisticated micro processor control systems, the modern injection moulding machine is capable of producing precision mouldings with close tolerances in large numbers and with excellent reproducibility. This capability, however, is often limited by the lack of a proper appreciation of mould design. The mould, or tool as it is often called, is at the heart of the injection moulding process. Its basic function is to accept the plastic melt from the injection unit and cool it to the desired shape prior to ejection. It is not, however, simply a matter of the mould having an impression of the shape to be moulded. Many other factors have to be taken into account - for example, the ability to fill the mould impression properly and efficiently without inducing weaknesses in the moulding and the efficient cooling of the moulding in order to maximise production rates without diminishing the quality of the moulding. In addition, the type of mould, gate and runner system, and ejection system which will best meet the needs of a particular job specification have to be determined. In our experience lack of attention to such factors leads to the mould limiting the ability of the injection moulding machine and preventing the process as a whole from achieving its true potential.

In 1991, my newly formed researchgroupat Berkeley was working intensely in the area of continuum-level constitutive relationships that could be obtained in a deductive mannerfrom microstructuralinformationthroughthemethods of homogenization theory. Of particular interest was the application of such methods to structural problems in the blossoming field of micromechanical devices. In this context it was becoming evident that we needed to learn to navigate through the continuum/discrete interface. Such were the circumstances when Vladimir Granik came to visit us at Berkeley for the first time. It is probably not surprising that we received with great enthusiasm his offer to join forces and develop a mechanics .of solid structures that would be based on a discrete representation of matter. Vladimir had established the foundations for such an endeavor with his work at Moscow University in the late 1970s. Since that first meeting, and with ever-increasing enthusiasm, it has been a great privilege for me to collaborate with Vladimir. We first applied the formalism of what has become known as "doublet mechanics" to the microstructure-based theory of failure of solids and worked on the paral- lels and differences between the doublet approach and homogenization, to- gether with Kevin Mon and Derek Hansford. Plane elastodynamics followed after Francesco Maddalena had proposed doublet viscoelesticity. The consti- tutive relationships in doublet mechanics were laid on a firm thermodynami- cal foundation through the work of Kevin Mon, while Miqin Zhang analyzed free boundary effects on multi-scale plane elastic waves in discrete domains.

Electrometallurgy is a broad field but it is not a new one. It was the great Faraday in the 1830s who discovered laws covering the electrodeposition of metals and its relation to the current passed and equivalent weight of the metal undergoing depo- tion. Since that time, applications and developments of his discoveries have spread to many areas of technology. Electrowinning is the most well known, partly because it embraces the process by which aluminum is extracted from its ores. In electrorefining, the impure metal is made into anode and the pure metal dissolved therefrom is deposited on a cathode. Electroplating is exemplified by its use in the manufacture of car bumpers. Finally, in electroreforming, objects may be metallized, often with a very thin layer of the coating desired. The numerous technologies vary greatly in the degree to which they are intell- tualized. Until the work of Popov et al. , electrometallurgy has been regarded as largely empirical, an activity in which there was much art and little science. This will all change with the publication of this book. Several aspects of the background of its senior author, Konstantin Popov, make him uniquely suited to the job of intellectual- ing electrometallurgy. First, he had as his mentor the great surely the leading electrochemist in Eastern Europe since the death of Frumkin. Second, he has had ample experience with the leading electrochemical engineer in America, Ralph White.

Elucidation of the various mechanisms responsible for fracture in different materials was the general subject of the Fourth Annual Symposium on Fundamental Phenomena in the Materials Sciences held January 31 and February 1, 1966, in Boston and sponsored by the Ilikon Corporation of Natick, Massachusetts. In an analysis of the brittle-to-ductile transition in polycrystalline metals, T. L. Johnston (Ford Motor Company) placed major emphasis on factors related to the plastic resistance associated with grain boundaries and the effects of plastic anisotropy. Utilizing a generalized form of the Griffith criterion, he said it can be readily shown that several individual factors may be made reasonably quantitative and that the nature of plastic response can be predicted. Specifically, it can be shown that a critical factor relates to the length of a plastic shear zone which is constrained by an elastically loaded matrix. As this length increases, the Griffith inequality is satisfied and brittle failure occurs; however, the use of decreased grain sizes or the refine ment of dislocation or twin distribution can further tend to "homoge nize" the plastic flow and to decrease the magnitude of the shear zone. Of considerable importance in the consideration of plastic resistance is the availability of favorably oriented slip systems in aa un sheared crystallite."

This book discusses future trends and developments in electron device packaging and the opportunities of nano and bio techniques as future solutions. It describes the effect of nano-sized particles and cell-based approaches for packaging solutions with their diverse requirements. It offers a comprehensive overview of nano particles and nano composites and their application as packaging functions in electron devices. The importance and challenges of three-dimensional design and computer modeling in nano packaging is discussed; also ways for implementation are described. Solutions for unconventional packaging solutions for metallizations and functionalized surfaces as well as new packaging technologies with high potential for industrial applications are discussed. The book brings together a comprehensive overview of nano scale components and systems comprising electronic, mechanical and optical structures and serves as important reference for industrial and academic researchers.

The fluorine atom, by virtue of its electronegativity, size, and bond strength with carbon, can be used to create compounds with remarkable properties. Small molecules containing fluorine have many positive impacts on everyday life of which blood substitutes, pharmaceuticals, and surface modifiers are only a few examples. Fluoropolymers, too, while traditionally associated with extreme hi- performance applications have found their way into our homes, our clothing, and even our language. A recent American president was often likened to the tribology of PTFE. Since the serendipitous discovery of Teflon at the Dupont Jackson Laboratory in 1938, fluoropolymers have grown steadily in technological and marketplace importance. New synthetic fluorine chemistry, new processes, and new apprec- tion of the mechanisms by which fluorine imparts exceptional properties all contribute to accelerating growth in fluoropolymers. There are many stories of harrowing close calls in the fluorine chemistry lab, especially from the early years, and synthetic challenges at times remain daunting. But, fortunately, modern techniques and facilities have enabled significant strides toward taming both the hazards and synthetic uncertainties. In contrast to past environmental problems associated with fluorocarbon refrigerants, the exceptional properties of fluorine in polymers have great environmental value. Some fluoropolymers are enabling green technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells for automobiles and oxygen-selective membranes for cleaner diesel combustion.

In the future, our energy systems will need to be renewable and sustainable, efficient and cost-effective, convenient and safe. Hydrogen has been proposed as the perfect fuel for this future energy system. The availability of a reliable and cost-effective supply, safe and efficient storage, and convenient end use of hydrogen will be essential for a transition to a Hydrogen Economy. Research is being conducted throughout the world for the development of safe, cost-effective hydrogen production, storage, and end-use technologies that support and foster this transition. This book is a collection of important research and analysis papers on hydrogen production, storage, and end-use technologies that were presented at the American Chemical Society National Meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, in August 1999.

This monograph describes and discusses the properties of heterogeneous materials, including conductivity, elastic moduli, and dielectrical constant. The book outlines typical experimental methods, and compares the experimental data and the theoretical predictions. This multidisciplinary book will appeal to applied physicists, materials scientists, chemical and mechanical engineers, chemists, and applied mathematicians.

Proceedings of the International School of Quantum Electronics 27th course on Bose Einstein Condensates and Atom Lasers, October 19-24, 1999, Erice, Italy. Since the experimental demonstration of Bose Einstein Condensation in dilute atomic gases there has been an explosion of interest in the properties of this novel macroscopic quantum system. The book covers the methods used to produce these new samples of coherent atoms, their manipulation and the study of their properties. Emphasis is given to the anticipated development of new types of sources, which more and more resemble traditional types of lasers. Because of recent new applications and increasing demand for lasers, sensors and associated instrumentation, the chapters also cover current developments in the basic techniques, materials and applications in the field of the generation of coherent atoms.

Stereology is the science that relates three-dimensional structure to the two-dimensional images that can be measured. The most common field of application is in microscopy, both of man-made materials (metals, ceramics, composites, etc.) and of biological tissue samples. This book covers the applications and terminology of both fields. Recent emphasis in stereology is concerned with sampling strategies to avoid bias due to directionality and non-uniformity, and these methods are fully covered. So are the classic techniques that measure size distributions, surface curvature, etc., which are widely useful but not discussed in other recent texts. Finally, most stereology is taught as manual procedures using counting and grids, but this text also covers the use of modern desktop computers for image analysis and processing to obtain and interpret the stereological data.

The field of nonlinear optics, which has undergone a very rapid development since the discovery of lasers in the early sixties, continues to be an active and rapidly developing - search area. The interest is mainly due to the potential applications of nonlinear optics: - rectly in telecommunications for high rate data transmission, image processing and recognition or indirectly from the possibility of obtaining large wavelength range tuneable lasers for applications in industry, medicine, biology, data storage and retrieval, etc. New phenomena and materials continue to appear regularly, renewing the field. This has proven to be especially true over the last five years. New materials such as organics have been developed with very large second- and third-order nonlinear optical responses. Imp- tant developments in the areas of photorefractivity, all optical phenomena, frequency conv- sion and electro-optics have been observed. In parallel, a number of new phenomena have been reported, some of them challenging the previously held concepts. For example, solitons based on second-order nonlinearities have been observed in photorefractive materials and frequency doubling crystals, destroying the perception that third order nonlinearities are - quired for their generation and propagation. New ways of creating and manipulating nonl- ear optical materials have been developed. An example is the creation of highly nonlinear (second-order active) polymers by static electric field, photo-assisted or all-optical poling. Nonlinear optics involves, by definition, the product of electromagnetic fields. As a con- quence, it leads to the beam control.

The need for alternate energy sources has led to the develop ment of prototype fusion and MHD reactors. Both possible energy systems in current designs usually require the use of magnetic fields for plasma confinement and concentration. For the creation and maintenance of large 5 to 15 tesla magnetic fields, supercon ducting magnets appear more economical. But the high magnetic fields create large forces, and the complexities of the conceptual reactors create severe space restrictions. The combination of re quirements, plus the desire to keep construction costs at a mini mum, has created a need for stronger structural alloys for service at liquid helium temperature (4 K). The complexity of the required structures requires that these alloys be weldable. Furthermore, since the plasma is influenced by magnetic fields and since magnet ic forces from the use of ferromagnetic materials in many configur ations may be additive, the best structural alloy for most applica tions should be nonmagnetic. These requirements have led to consideration of higher strength austenitic steels. Strength increases at low temperatures are achieved by the addition of nitrogen. The stability of the austenitic structure is retained by adding manganese instead of nickel, which is more expensive. Research to develop these higher strength austenitic steels is in process, primarily in Japan and the United States."

For several years, core level spectroscopies and other, c\osely related, electron spectroscopies have provided very useful information about the atomic composition, the geometric structure, and the electronic structure of condensed matter. Recently, these spectroscopies have also been used for the study of magnetic properties; such studies have a great potential to extend our knowledge and understanding of magnetic systems. This volume collects the lectures presented at the NATO Advanced Study Institute on "Core Level Spectroscopies for Magnetic Phenomena: Theory and Experiment" held at the Ettore Majorana Centre, Erice, Sicily, on 15 to 26 May 1994. The topics considered at the ASI covered a wide range of subjects involving the use of core-level and related spectroscopies to study magnetic phenomena. There are a large and growing number of applications of these spectroscopies to the study of magnetic materials; an important objective of the ASI was to stimulate further growth. The topics covered at the ASI can be placed into three general groups: 1) fundamental principles of core level spectroscopies; 2) basic aspects of magnetic phenomena; and, 3) the combination of the two previous topics embodied in applications of the spectroscopies to magnetism. In all three groups, theoretical interpretations as weH as experimental measurements were presented, often both of these aspects were covered in a single lecture or series oflectures. The theoretical treatments ofthe spectroscopies as weH as of the magnetic phenomena help to establish a framework for understanding many of the experimental measurements on magnetic materials.

Stochastic geometry, based on current developments in geometry, probability and measure theory, makes possible modeling of two- and three-dimensional random objects with interactions as they appear in the microstructure of materials, biological tissues, macroscopically in soil, geological sediments etc. In combination with spatial statistics it is used for the solution of practical problems such as the description of spatial arrangements and the estimation of object characteristics. A related field is stereology, which makes possible inference on the structures, based on lower-dimensional observations. Unfolding problems for particle systems and extremes of particle characteristics are studied. The reader can learn about current developments in stochastic geometry with mathematical rigor on one hand and find applications to real microstructure analysis in natural and material sciences on the other hand.

During the Koln meeting (August 28-31, 1984), Irdia was chosen as the venue for the next International Conference on Valence Fluctuations. lhis was in recognition ard appreciation of the work done, both experimental ard theoretical, by the Irdian scientists in this area during the last decade. We decided to hold this Conference in the month of January, 1987 at Bangalore. lhe subject of Valence Fluctuations has kept itself alive ard active as it has provided many shocks ard suprises particularly among the Ce- ard U-based intermetallies. lhe richness of many interesting physical phenomena occurring in mixed valent materials, the flexibility of modifying their physical properties (by alloying, for example) ard the possibility of synthesizing a wide variety of new such materials seem to be the key factors in this regard. Barely six months before this Conference, an International Conference on Anomalous Rare Earths and Actinides (ICAREA) had been held at Grenoble (July, 1986) which also focussed on mixed valence ard heavy fermion phenomena. In spite of this, the response to this' Conference was very enthusiastic and encouraging. Many interesting ard important results were presented at this Conference which have been included in this volume.

The liquid crystalline state may be identified as a distinct and unique state of matter which is characterised by properties which resembles those of both solids and liquids. It was first recognised in the middle of the last century through the study of nerve myelin and derivatives of cholesterol. The research in the area really gathered momentum, however, when as a result of the pioneering work of Gray in the early 1970's organic compounds showing liquid crystalline properties were shown to be suitable to form the basis of display devices in the electronic products. The study of liquid crystals is truly multidisciplinary and has attached the attention of physicists, biologists, chemists, mathematicians and electronics engineers. It is therefore impossible to cover all these aspects fully in two small volumes and therefore it was decided in view of the overall title of the series to concentrate on the structural and bonding aspects of the subject. The Chapters presented in these two volumes have been organised to cover the following fundamental aspects of the subject. The calculation of the structures of liquid crystals, an account of their dynamical properties and a discussion of computer simulations of liquid crystalline phases formed by Gay Berne mesogens. The relationships between molecular conformation and packing are analysed in some detail. The crystal structures of liquid crystal mesogens and the importance of their X ray scattering properties for characterisational purposes are discussed.

The subject of mechanical behavior has been in the front line of basic studies in engineering curricula for many years. This textbook was written for engineering students with the aim of presenting, in a relatively simple manner, the basic concepts of mechanical behavior in solid materials. A second aim of the book is to guide students in their laboratory experiments by helping them to understand their observations in parallel with the lectures of their various courses; therefore the first chapter of the book is devoted to mechanical testing. Another aim of the book is to provide practicing engineers with basic help to bridge the gap of time that has passed from their graduation up to their actual involvement in engineering work. The book also serves as the basis for more advanced studies and seminars when pursuing courses on a graduate level. The content of this textbook and the topics discussed correspond to courses that are usually taught in universities and colleges all over the world, but with a different and more modern approach. It is however unique by the inclusion of an extensive chapter on mechanical behavior in the micron and submicron/nanometer range. Mechanical deformation phenomena are explained and often related to the presence of dislocations in structures. Many practical illustrations are provided representing various observations encountered in actual structures of particularly technical significance. A comprehensive list of references at the end of each chapter is included to provide a broad basis for further studying the subject.

This series of books, which is published at the rate of about one per year, addresses fundamental problems in materials science. The contents cover a broad range of topics from small clusters of atoms to engineering materials and involve chemistry, physics, materials science, and engineering, with length scales ranging from Angstroms up to millimeters. The emphasis is on basic science rather than on applications. Each book focuses on a single area of current interest and brings together leading experts to give an up-to-date discussion of their work and the work of others. Each article contains enough references that the interested reader can access the relevant literature. Thanks are given to the Center for Fundamental Materials Research at Michigan State University for supporting this series. M. F. Thorpe, Series Editor E-mail: thorpe@pa. msu. edu East Lansing, Michigan V PREFACE It is hard to believe that not quite ten years ago, namely in 1991, nanotubes of carbon were discovered by Sumio Iijima in deposits on the electrodes of the same carbon arc apparatus that was used to produce fullerenes such as the "buckyball." Nanotubes of carbon or other materials, consisting ofhollow cylinders that are only a few nanometers in diameter, yet up to millimeters long, are amazing structures that self-assemble under extreme conditions. Their quasi-one-dimensional character and virtual absence of atomic defects give rise to a plethora of unusual phenomena."

Making Flory-Huggins Practical: Thermodynamics of Polymer-Containing Mixtures, by B. A. Wolf * Aqueous Solutions of Polyelectrolytes: Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium and Some Related Properties, by G. Maurer, S. Lammertz, and L. Ninni Schafer * Gas-Polymer Interactions: Key Thermodynamic Data and Thermophysical Properties, by J.-P. E. Grolier, and S. A.E. Boyer * Interfacial Tension in Binary Polymer Blends and the Effects of Copolymers as Emulsifying Agents, by S. H. Anastasiadis * Theory of Random Copolymer Fractionation in Columns, by Sabine Enders * Computer Simulations and Coarse-Grained Molecular Models Predicting the Equation of State of Polymer Solutions, by K. Binder, B. Mognetti, W. Paul, P. Virnau, and L. Yelash * Modeling of Polymer Phase Equilibria Using Equations of State, by G. Sadowski